Early psychoanalysis Libertine movement Early
libertine writers like
John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester espoused ideals that modern times are associated with sadomasochism.
Krafft-Ebing and Freud The modern conceptualization of sadomasochism was introduced to the medical field by German
psychiatrist Richard von Krafft-Ebing in his 1886 compilation of case studies
Psychopathia Sexualis. Pain and physical violence are not essential in Krafft-Ebing's conception, and he defined "masochism" (German
Masochismus) entirely in terms of control.
Sigmund Freud, a
psychoanalyst and a contemporary of Krafft-Ebing, noted that both were often found in the same individuals, and combined the two into a single
dichotomous entity known as "sadomasochism". French philosopher
Gilles Deleuze argued that the concurrence of sadism and masochism proposed in Freud's model is the result of "careless reasoning," and should not be taken for granted. Freud introduced the terms "primary" and "secondary" masochism. Though this idea has come under a number of interpretations, in a primary masochism the masochist undergoes a complete, rather than partial, rejection by the model or courted object (or sadist), possibly
involving the model taking a rival as a preferred mate. This complete rejection is related to the death drive (
Todestrieb) in Freud's psychoanalysis. In a secondary masochism, by contrast, the masochist experiences a less serious, more feigned rejection and punishment by the model. Both Krafft-Ebing and Freud assumed that sadism in men resulted from the distortion of the aggressive component of the male sexual instinct. Masochism in men, however, was seen as a more significant aberration, contrary to the nature of male sexuality. Freud doubted that masochism in men was ever a primary tendency, and speculated that it may exist only as a transformation of sadism. Sadomasochism in women received comparatively little discussion, as it was believed that it occurred primarily in men. Krafft-Ebing and Freud also assumed that masochism was so inherent to female sexuality that it would be difficult to distinguish as a separate inclination. woman
bound to a
Saint Andrew's Cross being whipped at the
Folsom Street Fair. The red marks on her body are from the whipping.
Havelock Ellis Havelock Ellis, in
Studies in the Psychology of Sex, argued that there is no clear distinction between the aspects of sadism and masochism, and that they may be regarded as complementary emotional states. He states that sadomasochism is concerned only with pain in regard to sexual pleasure, and not in regard to cruelty, as Freud had suggested. He believed the sadomasochist generally desires that the pain and violence be inflicted or received in love, not in abuse, for the pleasure of either one or both participants. This mutual pleasure may be essential for the satisfaction of those involved.
Jean-Paul Sartre Jean-Paul Sartre linked the pleasure or power experienced by a sadist in appraising the masochist victim to his philosophy of the "Look of the Other". Sartre argued that masochism is an attempt by the "For-itself" (consciousness) to reduce itself to nothing, becoming an object that is drowned out by the "abyss of the Other's subjectivity".
Gilles Deleuze Deleuze’s
Coldness and Cruelty critiques sadomasochism as a clinical concept and, drawing on
Henri Bergson, challenges Freud’s
Oedipal framing of perversion as conflating fundamentally distinct realms of perversion and neurosis.
René Girard In
Things Hidden Since the Foundation of the World (1978),
René Girard discusses masochism as part of his theory of
mimetic desire and revisits Freud’s distinction between primary and secondary masochism in relation to rivalry around the love-object. . The image shows a dominant woman holding a bound man's penis, applying electricity to his
testicles at the
Folsom Street Fair.
Modern understanding Sexual sadomasochistic desires can appear at any age. Some individuals report having had them before puberty, while others do not discover them until well into adulthood. According to a 1985 study, the majority of male sadomasochists (53%) developed their interest before the age of 15, while the majority of females (78%) developed their interest afterwards. The prevalence of sadomasochism within the general population is unknown. Despite female sadists being less visible than males, some surveys have resulted in comparable amounts of sadistic fantasies between females and males. The results of such studies indicate that one's sex may not be the determining factor for a preference towards sadism. In contrast to frameworks seeking to explain and categorise sadomasochistic behaviours and desires through psychological, psychoanalytic, medical, or forensic approaches, Romana Byrne suggests that, in the context of sexual behaviours, such practices can be seen as examples of "
aesthetic sexuality", in which a founding physiological or psychological impulse is irrelevant. Rather, according to Byrne, sadism and masochism may be practiced through choice and deliberation, driven by certain aesthetic goals tied to style, pleasure, and identity, which in certain circumstances, she claims can be compared with the creation of art. Surveys from the 2000s on the spread of sadomasochistic fantasies and practices show strong variations in the range of their results. Nonetheless, researchers assumed that 5 to 25 percent of the population practices sexual behavior related to pain or dominance and submission. The population with related fantasies is believed to be even larger. == Medical and forensic classification ==