In the late 2nd and early 1st century BC, Thrace was politically fractured and subject to constant fighting between local and foreign powers. As a result of a paucity of sources for this period, the status and background of various little-known local monarchs remains disputed among historians. At least some of the Thracian kings of this period probably belonged to the
Thracian tribe of the
Sapaeans. At the same time, the Roman Republic tried to exert more influence in the region, though
Roman relations with the Thracians remained inconsistent and dependent on the interests of individual Roman officials. The Romans encountered great resistance and suffered repeated defeats at the hands of Thracian tribes, most importantly the
Bessi; regardless, the Romans gradually contained the Thracian raiding into surrounding, Roman-dominated areas like the one of ancient
Macedon. The Romans were generally interested in centralizing the disorganized Thracian territories, hoping that local monarchs could then act as intermediaries and reduce the chaos at the Roman borders. By the middle of the 1st century BC, the Sapaeans had emerged as one of the most important Thracian tribes; the latter eventually became Rome's allies and clients. Despite this, the Romans initially favored a local kingdom led by an Odrysian-Astaean royal family. Probably soon after the
Battle of Actium in 31 BC, Roman leader
Augustus sought to implement
indirect rule over Thrace through a large,
Hellenized client kingdom. The Romans removed the Odrysian-Astaean royal family from power, and put the entire kingdom under Sapaean rule with
Bizye acting as the initial center of this reorganized polity. However, many Thracians continued to oppose both the Sapaeans as well as the Romans. Around 13 BC, the Bessi under a priest named Vologaesus revolted and killed the Thracian king. The Roman Empire put down the rebellion and consequently expanded its holdings along the
Danube. Another unsuccessful revolt broke out in 11 BC. The power of the Thracian kingdom declined as the royal family became embroiled in dynastic conflicts and civil wars. When Sapaean ruler
Rhoemetalces I died in 12 AD, the Romans divided his kingdom among his son
Cotys III and his brother
Rhescuporis II, but the two rulers quickly started to fight each other. Cotys III was murdered by his uncle in 19 AD, whereupon the Romans deposed him and picked new kings from the two lines. Further rebellions continued to erupt in the Thracian kingdom, such as in 21 AD when insurgents besieged king
Rhoemetalces II. He was saved by the
Roman army's intervention. In turn, Rhoemetalces II helped the Romans to put down a rebellion among the southern Thracian mountain tribes in 26 AD. Around 44/45 AD, another revolt broke out during which king
Rhoemetalces III was killed. In 46 AD,
Roman Emperor Claudius put an end to the kingdom by annexing it. == List of Sapaean kings ==