The "self"-concept in Western culture The "self" concept in western psychology originated from views of a number of empiricists and rationalists.
Hegel (1770–1831) established a view of self-consciousness in which, by observation, our subject-object consciousness stimulates our rationale and reasoning, which then guides human behaviour.
Freud (1856–1939) developed a three-part model of the psyche comprising the Id (), the Ego (), and the superego (). Freud's self-concept influenced
Erikson (1902–1994), who emphasized self-identity crisis and self-development. Following Erikson, J. Marcia described the continuum of identity development and the nature of our self-identity. The concept of self-consciousness derives from self-esteem, self-regulation, and
self-efficacy.
Morita therapy Through case-based research, Japanese psychologist
Morita Masatake (1874–1938) introduced
Morita therapy. It is based on Masatake's theory of consciousness and his four-stage therapeutic method, and is described as an ecological therapy method that focuses on .
Morita therapy resembles
rational-emotive therapy by American psychologist
Albert Ellis, and
existential and cognitive behavioral therapy. Naikan therapy ("", , self-reflection) is a Japanese psychotherapeutic method introduced and developed decades ago by Japanese businessman and
Buddhist monk (
Jōdo Shinshū)
Yoshimoto Ishin (1916–1988). Initially, therapy was more often used in correctional settings, however it has been adapted to situational and psychoneurotic disorders. Similar to Morita therapy, requires subordination to a carefully structured period of "retreat" that is compassionately supervised by the practitioner. Contrary to Morita, is shorter (seven days) and utilizes long, regulated periods of daily meditation in which introspection is directed toward the resolution of contemporary conflicts and problems. "In contrast to Western psychoanalytic psychotherapy, both and Morita tend to keep transference issues simplified and positive, while resistance is dealt with procedurally rather than interpretively."
The theory of constructive living Based largely on the adaptions of two Japanese structured methods of self-reflection,
Naikan therapy and
Morita therapy,
constructive living is a Western approach to mental health education. Purpose-centered and response-oriented,
constructive living (sometimes abbreviated as CL) focuses on the mindfulness and purposes of one's life. It is considered as a process of action to approach the reality thoughtfully. It also emphasizes the ability to understand one's self by recognizing the past, in which it reflects upon the present. Constructive Living highlights the importance of acceptance, of the world we live in, as well as the emotions and feelings individuals have in unique situations. D. Reynolds, Author of
Constructive Living and Director of the Constructive Living Center in Oregon, U.S., argues that before taking the actions which may potentially bring positive changes, people are often hold back by the belief of "dealing with negative emotions first". According to Reynolds, the most crucial component of the process of effectuating affirmations is not getting the mind right. However, one's mind and emotions are effectively adjusted during the process of self-reflection, which indicates that there shall be a behavioural change taken place beforehand.
Epicurean meleta At the closing of his
Letter to Menoeceus,
Epicurus instructs his disciple to practice (meleta) "both by yourself and with others of like mind". The first field of practice shares semantic roots with and is related to the Hellenistic philosophical concept of "epimeleia heauton" (self-care), which involves methods of self-cultivation. In addition to the study of philosophy, this may include other techniques for living (techne biou) or technologies of the soul, like the visualizing technique known as "placing before the eyes", a cognitive therapy technique known as "relabeling", moral portraiture, and other didactic and ethical methods. We find examples of these techniques in
Philodemus of Gadara, the poet
Lucretius, and other Epicurean guides.
Nietzsche's ethics of self-cultivation "If you incorporate this thought within you, amongst your other thoughts" he maintains "It will transform you. If for everything you wish to do you begin by asking yourself: 'Am I certain I want to do this an infinite number of times?' this will become for you the greatest weight." (KSA 9:11 [143]) Nietzsche worked on the project of reviving Self-cultivation, an ancient ethics. "I hate everything that merely instructs me without augmenting or directly invigorating my own activity"(HL 2:1) "It follows therefore that he must conceive eternal recurrence among other things as a practice that stimulates self-cultivation. In fact in one of his characteristically grandiose moments he identified it as 'the great cultivating thought' in the sense that it might weed out those too weak to bear the thought of living again (WP 1053). In a more tempered fashion, however, he framed the thought of recurrence as part of an ethics of self-cultivation and self-transformation." == See also ==