Sierra Norte de Puebla

, Puebla. The region consists of sixty eight municipalities, most of which are considered rural, located at the far north of the state of Puebla, north and east of where the state of Tlaxcala cuts into Puebla. Most of the Sierra Norte corresponds with the Puebla subregion of the Carso Huasteco, which covers an area of 448,927 hectares or thirteen percent of the state. The area is at the intersection of the Sierra Madre Oriental and the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt. These mountains extend eastward into the state of Veracruz until the narrow Gulf of Mexico coastal plain. The areas rocks is mostly sedimentary with some volcanic, but all have been altered by tectonic processes caused by the moving earth and forming the mountains here. The area is very rugged with few narrow valleys with about 60% of the territory made up of steep slopes. Altitudes range from 100 to 2,300 meters above sea level. The area is filled with caves and caverns, many of which are little explored. The town of Pahuatlán is over an ancient landslide. The relative prosperity of the 20th century has spurred development of large towns with cement block structure, significantly heavier than traditional homes. This has made a number of areas, such as Pahuatlán, more vulnerable to landslides as they are located on mountainsides. Deforestation and road construction have also increased the risk. Major landslides have occurred in 1955, 1989, 1995, 1999, 2001, 2005, and 2007. The last was due to two hurricanes (Dean and Lorenzo) and isolated a number of communities for days. The Sierra Norte is the rainiest part of Puebla with average rainfall in most places between 1500 and 3,000mm, with Cuetzalan having the highest precipitation zone at between 4,000 and 6,000mm. Most of the surface water is in fast moving streams and small rivers, some of which run only in the rainy season and many of which can be torrential when rains are heavy. The three most important rivers are the Necaxa and Apulco. Other important rivers include the Pantepec, Laxaxalpan, San Pedro (Zun), Zempoala, Cedro Viego, Salteros and Martínez de la Torre. All of these flow towards the Gulf of Mexico, in the drainage basins of the Nautla, Tecolutla, Cazones and Tuxpan Rivers. As it is one of the rainiest areas of Mexico, the water flow here is high, measuring about 6,697mm2, accounting for sixty percent of new runoff for Puebla with about 2/3 flowing into Veracruz. The main aquifer is the Tecolutla, which has 70% of the underground fresh water in the area, followed by the Libres-Oriental, Martínez de la Torre-Nautla and Perote-Zayaleta. The region has great biological diversity because of the wide variance in altitude. Wild vegetation can be classed as evergreen tropical forest (the Veracruz moist forests ecoregion), mountain mesophyll or cloud forest (the Veracruz montane forests ecoregion north of the Tecolutla River, and Oaxacan montane forests south of the river) and pine–oak and pine forest (the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt pine–oak forests ecoregion) with large areas of transition from one to another. The ecosystem of the region is highly disturbed with urban areas along with farms, areas of secondary vegetation as well as areas with primary vegetation. The Sierra Norte is divided into four subregions, according to its ecology and agriculture. The area nearest the highlands of Puebla and Tlaxcala in the south is called the Bocasierra. This strip of land has elevations between 1,500 and 2,500 meters above sea level, with a primarily temperate and cold climate. Main crops are apples, plums, pears, peaches, avocados and certain flowers and ornamental plants. It is economically and politically the most important area of the Sierra Norte and includes municipalities such as Huauchinango, Zacatlán, Chignahuapan, Tetela de Ocampo, Zacapoaxtla, Zaragoza and Teziutlán. The coffee-growing region has elevations between 200 and 1,500 meters above sea levels with a very humid, temperate-warm climate, which is optimal for coffee and black pepper. This area includes the municipalities of Cuetzalan, Tuzamapan, Huehuetla, Xochitlán de Vicente Suárez, Zapotitlán de Méndez, Hueytlalpan, Ahuacatlán, Aquixtla, Zihuateutla, Pahuatlán and Naupan. The Zona Baja (low area) includes areas below 200 meters above sea level. It has a tropical climate with agriculture dedicated primarily to citrus fruits such as oranges, mandarin oranges, grapefruit, papaya and mamey. It is also noted for its cattle. It includes the municipalities of Francisco Z. Mena, Venustiano Carranza, Pantepec, Jalpan and Tenampulco. The Declive Austral (southern slope) de la Sierra is an arid area as the winds from the Gulf of Mexico that brings in moisture do not get this far as often. This area has large haciendas which use high technology irrigation systems for crops such as barley and wheat. It is also noted for the raising of horses. It includes the municipalities of Ixtacamaxtitlán, Cuyoaco, Tepeyahualco, Libres and Ocotepec. While much of the agriculture and other economic activities are adapted to the various ecologies of the region; however, overexploitation has severely damaged many of these systems and in turn, the economic support of many indigenous communities. Much of the original forest has been cut for pasture and for cultivation as well as for wood. Deforestation has led to greater danger from landslides. ==Climate==

in Zacatlán The Sierra Norte is one of the rainiest regions in Mexico, with an average of 500 and 800 mm each month on average. The high amount of rainfall, especially on the ocean facing slopes in the north makes landslides more commons as soils saturate. Hurricanes can occur between June and November, at the end of the rainy season. These storms can be catastrophic with the amount of rain causing flash flooding and saturated soils resulting in landslides. Precipitation is lowest in winter because of wind patterns called "nortes." These are polar air masses that collide with the warm waters of the Gulf as they move south. For this region, this usually results in high wind and light rainfall. The climate of the region is divided into six subtypes. Hot and humid - Am(f) is characterized by abundant rain in the summer with an average annual temperature of between 22 and 24 °C. Precipitation totals vary between 1,200 and 2,500 mm. This climate is found in the very north, along the border with Veracruz in the municipalities of Acatenco, Tenampulco, Hueytamalco and Ayotoxco de Guerrero. Hot and humid – Af(m) is characterized by rains year round with an average annual temperature of between 22 and 26 °C and annual precipitation of between 1,500 in the lower elevation to over 3,000 in the highest. This climate is found in the municipalities of Ayotoxco de Guerrero, Tuzamapan de Galeana, Cuetzalan del Progresso and parts of Acateno, Yahonáhuac, Teziutlán and Hueyapan. Semi hot with rain year round – AC(fm) is characterized by an average annual temperature of between 18 and 24 °C with precipitation levels varying between 1,200 and 4,500 mm per year. This is found along a strip in the municipalities of Tlaxco and Hueytamalco at an altitude of between 700 and 1,500 meters above sea level. Temperate and humid – C(fm) is characterized by year round rain with an average annual temperature of less than 18 °C and precipitation varying from between 1,200 and 3,000. This is found in the municipalities of Atempan, Teziutlán, Hueyapan, Yahonáhuac, Tuzamapan de Galeana, Huehuetla, Cuetzalan, Xiutetelco, Chignautla y completamente cubren los municipios de Jonotla, Ixtepec, Hueytlalpan, Nauzontla, Atletlequizayan and Xochitlán de Vicente Suárez. Temperate and humid with abundant rain in summer – C(m) is characterized by an average annual temperature of between 12 and 18C with an average annual rainfall of between 1,000 and 2,000mm, most of which falls in the summer. This is found primarily in the north east in the municipalities of Hueytamalco, Huehuetla, Ayotoxco de Guerrero and Cuetzalan. Temperate and semi-humid with rain in summer – C(m2) is characterized as less humid than C(m) with average annual temperatures between 12 and 18 °C and precipitation between 400 and 800 mm. This is found in the municipalities of Chignautla, Zacapoaxtla and Xochiapulco. ==Demographics==

The Sierra Norte is a predominantly rural region with a high percentage of indigenous population and an elevated level of socioeconomic marginalization, especially among the indigenous. Those in the region identify themselves as from the mountains (serranos) before identifying with the state of Puebla. Among serranos, there is a division between the various indigenous groups and "mestizos" or people of mixed European-indigenous ethnicity. Mestizos are strongly segregated from the indigenous and found mostly in the urban municipal seats, especially Zacatlán, Chignahuapan, Tetela de Ocampo, Zacapoaxtla, Cuetzalan, Teziutlán, Zaragoza, Zihuateutla and Tlatlauquitepec, with the indigenous in the more rural areas. Social and economic organizations are best developed among the Nahuas and the Totonacs to promote the communities' interests. Most of these are Nahua and based in Cuetzalan. One of the first organizations of this kind was the Cooperativa Agropecuaria Regional Tosepan Titataniske (CARTT) in the 1970s, with the aim of improving the prospects of small agricultural producers. There are no Huastec communities but the very north is considered to overlap the extreme south of the La Huasteca region. The Comisión Nacional para el Desarrollo de los Pueblos Indígenas works in the areas with several centers in Huauchinango, Zacapoaxtla and Teziutlán as well as a radio station, XECTZ in Cuetzalan, called La Voz de la Sierra (The Voice of the Mountains) in Spanish and various indigenous languages. Indigenous beliefs and rituals have been more strongly maintained here than in other areas of Mexico because of its relative isolation. Until the middle of the 19th century, there were few to no non-Indians living in the region. The ceremony was named an Intangible Cultural Heritage by UNESCO in order to help the ritual survive and thrive in the modern world. According to Totonac myth, its origin was to appease the gods during a drought. The exact origin of this ritual/dance is unknown, but it is thought to have originated with the Huastec, Nahua and Otomi peoples in Sierra del Puebla and mountain areas of Veracruz. The ritual spread through much of the Mesoamerican world until it was practiced from northern Mexico to Nicaragua. The ritual was partially lost after the Conquest, and the Spaniards destroyed many records about it. In modern times, a number of changes have occurred. Due to the deforestation of much of the Sierra de Puebla and mountain areas of Veracruz, most voladores perform on permanent metal poles. The Ritual Ceremony of the Voladores of Papantla was recognized as Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH) by UNESCO in 2009. Various other communities in the Sierra Norte regularly perform the Voladores dance or ritual including Chila Honey, Huauchinango and Tenango de Flores. Today, Puebla has the largest number of Nahuas in Mexico, most of which live in the Sierra Norte. Totonac, of the Totonacan (a.k.a. Totonac-Tepehua) family), is spoken in both the Sierra Norte de Puebla and northern Veracruz although not all dialects are mutually intelligible. In a number of indigenous communities such as the Totonac speakers in Chicontla and Patla, parents encourage their children to be monolingual in Spanish only. This is mostly because Spanish is seen as necessary for their economic future and the speaking of Totonac might hold them back. ==History==

The first known culture based in this area was that of the Totonacs, who have occupied the area in northern Veracruz and the Sierra Norte de Puebla possibly since the 7th century, with major urban centers in El Tajín, Cempoala, and Yohualichan reaching their heights between 600 and 900 CE. The borders of northern Puebla fluctuated in the latter 19th century but were fixed to their current ones by the Mexican Revolution. Education levels during the 20th century increased greatly. Public schooling became widely available in the 1960s. Most municipalities now offer education to the middle school level with high schools located in many. The access to education has been a factor in many youth leaving the area for better opportunities. The building of highways not only has served to bring people into the area but also has allowed people to migrate out. Another major infrastructure improvement was the introduction of electricity which is available in even the most isolated communities and most have running water. This is due to the regions abundant hydroelectric resources. Roads for cars in many towns, running water, government medical clinics and electric power lines did not appear in many areas until the 1980s. Despite the improvements, the region still remains behind the rest of the country in infrastructure. Drainage and sewerage services are still scarce. The linking of the region made the cash economy, started and supported by the growing of coffee, dominant. This brought in money for consumer goods such as televisions and radios. However, it has also made cash a necessity for food and many other goods. Coffee prices dropped after government controls were eliminated in the early 1980s. This has forced many in the area to migrate out, temporarily or permanently to other parts of Mexico and to the United States to work. This is especially true during the months between main coffee harvests. ==Economy==

The area has a high index of socioeconomic marginalization. Historically, this was because of its geographic isolation, but since the 19th century it has been more related to the introduction of a cash economy. This marginalization is most acutely found in the rural indigenous areas as power and wealth are concentrated in the major towns dominated by mestizos. The handcrafts tradition of the region goes back to the pre Hispanic period. After it was conquered by the Aztecs, a tribute item was cotton garments, which were highly prized. Today, it is mostly done as a complement to agricultural activities, with some exceptions, with most learning their skills in childhood. Communities tend to specialize in a certain handcrafts. Pottery is mostly made in the towns of Aquixtla, Tetela de Ocampo, Tenextatiloyan and Zacatlán. Textiles made with backstrap or more modern looms (and often embroidered) is more widespread. Most of this is related to women's garments such as the embroidered blouses, skirts and a poncho-like garment called as quezquemitl. Most garments vary in design depending on origin and some communities make garments for sale, but in different colors and designs then those made for home use. Xochitlán and Zacatlán produce hard apple cider and various fruit wines with a sugar cane liquor called "aguardiente" widely produced although illegal. However, most of the investment has been in the main towns dominated by the mestizo population and not the rural indigenous communities outside of the municipal seats. Two areas which have been heavily promoted are the towns of Zacatlán and Cuetzalan, both of which have been named Pueblos Mágicos. Most of the tourism development has been related to a corridor to connect the main attractions of the region. To become designated as Pueblos Mágicos, both cities underwent significant restoration costing millions of pesos. Indigenous culture has been promoted for tourism by the introduction of a number of new festivals. One of these is the Muestra de Etnias (Demonstration of Ethnicities). In 2011, Pahuatlán hosted the first Encuentro de Voladors de la Sierra Norte de Puebla exhibition for Voladores performers with the aim of promoting the area's culture for tourism. However, some indigenous people have managed to take advantage of the tourism surge. Masseualsiuamej Mosenyolchicauanij (Women who work together) is a Nahua cooperative that was begun in the 1990s and has 120 members currently. Its main focus is the production and sale of handcrafts as well as the women's rights. In 1997, the cooperative established a hotel and ecotourism center called Taselotzin owned and controlled entirely by these women. ==Education==

Widespread public education was not available in the region until the 1960s. Today, all municipalities offer education to the middle school level and most have high schools. Other institutions of higher education include Instituto Tecnológico Superior de la Sierra Norte de Puebla and the Instituto Tecnológico Superior de Zacapoaxtla. ==References==