Silvina Ocampo

Ocampo was born to a wealthy family in Buenos Aires, the youngest of six daughters (Victoria, Angélica, Francisca, Rosa, Clara María, and Silvina) of Manuel Silvio Cecilio Ocampo and Ramona Aguirre Herrera. Her family resided on the Canary Islands before moving to Argentina in the mid-19th century. Ocampo was the sister of Victoria Ocampo, the founder and editor of the prestigious Argentine journal Sur. Ocampo was educated at home by tutors and in Paris. Her family belonged to the upper bourgeoisie, a fact that allowed her to have a very complete education. She had three governesses (one French and two English), a Spanish teacher, and an Italian teacher. Because of this, the six sisters learned to read in English and French before Spanish. This trilingual training would later influence Ocampo's writing, according to Ocampo herself. Her ancestors belonged to the Argentine aristocracy and owned extensive lands. Her great-great-great-great-grandfather, José de Ocampo, was governor of Cuzco before moving to Virreinato del Río de la Plata. Manuel José de Ocampo (her great-great-great-grandfather) was one of the first governors when independence was declared. Her great-grandfather Manuel José de Ocampo y González was a politician and candidate for president of the country. He was also a friend of Domingo Faustino Sarmiento. Her grandfather, Manuel Anselmo Ocampo, was a rancher. Another of her ancestors was Domingo Martinez de Irala, conqueror of Asunción and future governor of Río de la Plata and Paraguay. The brother of Ocampo's great-great-great-grandmother, Juan Martín de Pueyrredón, was Supreme Director of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata. Another distant relative is Juan Manuel de Rosas who was the main leader until 1852. Her mother, Ramona Máxima Aguirre, was one of eight children. She enjoyed gardening and playing the violin. Her family was of Creole origins and religious. Her father, Manuel Silvio Cecilio Ocampo Regueira, was born in 1860 and was an architect. He was one of nine children and had a conservative character. In winter, Ocampo visited her great-grandfather, who lived nearby, daily. During the summer, her family lived in a villa in San Isidro, a modern house that in its time had electricity and running water. Currently, this house (Villa Ocampo) is a UNESCO site and recognized as a historical monument. In the summer, she took classes on the second floor, where she learned the fundamentals that would later help her become a writer. Two events that had a significant impact on Ocampo in her youth were the marriage of her sister Victoria and the death of her sister Clara. She stated that Victoria's marriage had taken away her youth: "Hubo un episodio de mi niñez que marcó mucho nuestra relación. Victoria me quitó la niñera que yo más quería, la que más me cuidó, la que más me mimó: Fanni. Ella me quería a mí más que a nadie. Fanni sabía que yo la adoraba, pero cuando Victoria se casó y se la llevó con ella nadie se atrevió a oponérsele" [There was an episode from my childhood that strongly marked our relationship. Victoria took away the nanny that I loved the most, the one who cared for me the most, the one who pampered me the most: Fanni. She loved me more than anyone else. Fanni knew I adored her, but when Victoria married and took her with her, no one dared to oppose her]. She also stated that she began to hate socializing once Clara died. Among her friends was the Italian writer Italo Calvino, who prefaced her stories. Back in Buenos Aires, she worked on painting with Norah Borges and María Rosa Oliver. She held various exhibitions, both individual and collective. When Victoria founded the magazine Sur in 1931, which published articles and texts by many important writers, philosophers, and intellectuals of the 20th century, Ocampo was part of the founding group. However, like Borges and Bioy Casares, she did not have a prominent role in the decisions about the content to be published, which was a task performed by Victoria and José Bianco. In 1934, Ocampo met her future husband, the Argentine author Adolfo Bioy Casares. [That puts her in a handicapped place. The relationship with Bioy was very complex; she had a fairly full love life [. . . ] The relationship with Bioy Casares could make her suffer, but it also inspired her]. Ocampo and Bioy remained together until her death, despite her husband's frequent infidelities. In 1954, Bioy's extramarital daughter, Marta, was born. Ocampo adopted Marta and raised her as her own. Marta Bioy Ocampo died in an automobile accident shortly after Ocampo's own death. Bioy Casares's son by another mistress, Fabián Bioy, later won a lawsuit for the right to the estates of Ocampo and Bioy Casares; Fabián Bioy died in 2006. == Career and literary works ==

Ocampo began her career as a short story writer in 1936. Sur played a foundational role in the life of Ocampo, facilitating her connections with Borges, Bioy, Wilcock, and others in her circle. It was in this magazine where the first stories, poems, and translations of Ocampo appeared. Despite this, the book did not have much impact at the time of its appearance. Two years earlier she had written a crime novel with Bioy Casares, Los que aman, odian. After several years of publishing only poetry (Los sonetos del jardín, Poemas de amor desesperado, Los nombres, which won the National Poetry Prize) she returned to writing stories in 1959 with La furia, with which she finally obtained some recognition. La furia is often considered the point in which Ocampo reached the fullness of her style. The 1960s and 70s Ocampo was somewhat less active in terms of editorial presence in the 1960s, as she only published the volume of short stories, Las invitadas (1961), and the poetry book, Lo amargo por dulce (1962). In contrast, she was somewhat more fruitful during the 1970s. During these years, Ocampo published the poems Amarillo celeste, Árboles de Buenos Aires, and Canto escolar. She also published the story Los días de la noche and a series of children's stories: El cofre volante, El tobogán, El caballo alado, and La naranja maravillosa. Last years and posthumous publications The publication of her last two books, Y así sucesivamente (1987) and Cornelia frente al espejo (1988), coincided with her onset of Alzheimer's disease. The illness gradually reduced her faculties until leaving her debilitated during her last three years. She died in Buenos Aires on 14 December 1993, at the age of 90. She was buried in the family crypt of the Recoleta Cemetery, a cemetery where Bioy Casares is also buried. Volumes of her unpublished texts appeared posthumously, including poetry and short novels. In 2006, four of her works were published: Invenciones del recuerdo (an autobiography written in free verse), Las repeticiones (a collection of unpublished short stories that includes two short novels), El vidente, and Lo mejor de la familia. In 2007, the novel La torre sin fin was published for the first time in Argentina, and in 2008, Ejércitos de la oscuridad appeared, a volume that includes various texts. All the material was edited by Sudamericana, which also reissued some of her short story collections. In 2011, La promesa was published, a novel that Ocampo began around 1963 and that, with long interruptions and rewrites, finished between 1988 and 1989, pressured by her illness. The edition was in the care of Ernesto Montequin. == Critical reception ==

For most of her career, Argentine critics did not recognize the merit of Ocampo's works. Due to some extent to her relationship with Borges, her stories were criticized as not being "Borgesian enough." It was the veneration of Borges and her sister Victoria that prevented critics from understanding the formal and thematic originality of her stories. Instead, they saw them as a failure in their attempt to copy the style of these other writers. Critics wanted a firm statement about her position with respect to the "literary norm" so that they would know how to read her works and ensure that they were properly interpreting them, Suárez-Hernán bases her opinion on the context of Ocampo's literature, stating that Ocampo's literature contains a deep reflection on femininity and numerous demands for women's rights, as well as a critique of her situation in society. Ocampo finds different mechanisms of creation and deconstruction of the feminine. The women in her works are complex and present the dark side of femininity, and the multiple female representations shows an ambiguity that challenges the one-dimensional vision of the female character. From three stories—"Cielo de claraboyas" (1937), "El vestido de terciopelo" (1959), y "La muñeca" (1970)—Amícola suggests that Ocampo's tales question the absence of sex-gender and of the feminine vision in psychoanalysis developed by Freud, with a special focus on the horrifying. Amícola does what Ocampo does not understand about the critics; she focuses too much on the horror of her stories and ignores the humor. Ocampo told Moreno her frustration: "Con mi prosa puedo hacer reír. ¿Será una ilusión? Nunca, ninguna crítica menciona mi humorismo" [With my prose I can make people laugh. Will it be an illusion? No critic ever mentions my humor]. In contrast, Suárez-Hernán proposes that the humor used in Ocampo's work helps to subvert female stereotypes. For Suárez-Hernán, Ocampo's work maintains a subversive and critical stance that finds pleasure in transgression. Established patterns are broken and roles are interchangeable; stereotypical oppositions of femininity and masculinity, good and evil, and beauty and ugliness are subjected to satirical treatment. Likewise, space and time are subverted and the boundaries between the mental categories of space, time, person, and animal are blurred. When María Moreno asked her what she thought about feminism, Ocampo replied: "Mi opinión es un aplauso que me hace doler las manos" [My opinion is a round of applause that makes my hands hurt]. "¿Un aplauso que le molesta dispensar?" [An applause that bothers you to give?], questioned Moreno. "¡Por qué no se va al diablo!" [Why don't you go to hell!] was Ocampo's reply. Regarding the female vote in Argentina, Ocampo said, "Confieso que no me acuerdo. Me pareció tan natural, tan evidente, tan justo, que no juzgué que requería una actitud especial" [I confess that I do not remember. It seemed so natural, so evident, so fair, that I did not consider it required a special attitude]. Childhood and adulthood Amícola suggests that Ocampo's intention is to create child characters that aim to demystify the idea of infantile innocence. Amícola proposes the example of confronting children versus adults to create a polarization. Suárez-Hernán also suggests that the children's narrative voice becomes a strategy to generate the ambiguity that is a part of the unreliable narrator; the reader always harbors doubts about the narrator's understanding of the facts as well as their credibility. For Suárez-Hernán, the stories show the asymmetry between the world of adults and the world of children; parents, teachers, and governesses embody the sanctioning institution and are often nefarious figures. Suárez-Hernán considers that women, children, and the poor in Ocampo's work act in a subordinate position dominated by stereotypes. According to Suárez-Hernán, the world of childhood is privileged over adulthood as an appropriate space to subvert social structures; thus, the child's gaze will be the instrument to undermine the structural bases and transgress established limits. However, Suárez-Hernán believes that the powers attributed to the girl and her perversity generate disturbance in the reader who cannot avoid identifying with the adult woman. == Themes ==

Ocampo's work has fantastical qualities, like her contemporary Borges. Ocampo reportedly said that the judges for Argentina's National Prize for fiction in 1979 adjudged her work "demasiado crueles"—too cruel—for the award. Ocampo also experiments with the consequences of living in a world separated from adult society in "La raza inextinguible," but she also explores elements involved in the aging process and alludes that there are positive effects implicit in the characters who mix childhood traits with those of adults. Metamorphosis In many of her stories, Ocampo uses physical and psychological changes (characterized as metamorphosis) to transform many of her characters. These include the transition from people to plants (the human-plant hybridism in "Sabanas de Tierra"), into animals (the human-feline hybridism in "El rival"), into machines (the human-inanimate hybridism "El automóvil"), and in other people (for example, "Amado en el amado"). Ocampo uses gradual changes in her short story "Sabanas de tierra" to highlight the metamorphic process of a gardener in a plant. These changes are typically noted by their transitions in senses and actions, for example, sound, smell, visual changes, and taste. According to Juan Ramón Vélez García, many of these processes of metamorphosis indicate biblical connections in Genesis. Vélez García interprets the transformative features of the characters as a cycle or return, highlighting the biblical phrase "pulvis es et in pulverem reverteris" (Vélez García K.R. 2006). The characters in "Sabanas de tierra" do not have proper names. Ishak Farag Fahim believes that this reflects an attempt to generalize the ideas and worldview that the story seeks to communicate. == Legacy ==

Ocampo's own merit as a writer has been overshadowed by her associations with her sister Victoria Ocampo, her husband Adolfo Bioy Casares, and her friend Jorge Luis Borges. In recent years, however, Ocampo's work has been newly translated into English, bringing greater awareness to Ocampo's accomplishments as a writer. Ocampo is buried at La Recoleta Cemetery in Buenos Aires. ==Selected works==

Short stories and novellas • Viaje olvidado (Buenos Aires: Sur, 1937). Forgotten Journey, trans. by Suzanne Jill Levine and Katie Lateef-Jan (City Lights, 2019). • Los que aman, odian (novella with Adolfo Bioy Casares) (Buenos Aires: Emecé, 1946). ''Where There's Love, There's Hate'', trans. by Suzanne Jill Levine and Jessica Powell (Melville House, 2013). • Autobiografía de Irene (Buenos Aires: Sur, 1948). Autobiography of Irene • La furia (Buenos Aires: Sur, 1959). The Fury • Las invitadas (Buenos Aires: Losada, 1961). The Guests • Los días de la noche (Buenos Aires: Sudamericana, 1970). Days of Night • Y así sucesivamente (Barcelona: Tusquets, 1987). And So Forth • Cornelia frente al espejo (Barcelona: Tusquets, 1988). Cornelia Before the Mirror • ''Leopoldina's Dream''. Selection of 32 stories translated by Daniel Balderston (Penguin, 1988). • Thus Were Their Faces (New York Review Books, 2015). Revised and expanded edition of ''Leopoldina's Dream with ten additional stories. Published in the UK as The Imposter and Other Stories'' (2021). • La torre sin fin (novella) (2007). The Topless Tower, trans. by James Womack (Hesperus Press, 2010). • La promesa (novella) (Buenos Aires: Lumen, 2011). The Promise, trans. by Suzanne Jill Levine and Jessica Powell (City Lights, 2019). Poetry • Espacios métricos (Buenos Aires: Sur, 1942). • Enumeración de la patria (Buenos Aires: Sur, 1942). • Los sonetos del jardín (Buenos Aires: Sur, 1946). • Poemas de amor desesperado (Buenos Aires: Sudamericana, 1949). • Los nombres (Buenos Aires: Emecé, 1953). • Los traidores (a theatrical piece in verse written in collaboration with Juan Rodolfo Wilcock) (Buenos Aires: Losange, 1956). • Lo amargo por dulce (Buenos Aires: Emecé, 1962). • Amarillo celeste (Buenos Aires: Losada, 1972). • Árboles de Buenos Aires (Buenos Aires: Crea, 1979). • Canto Escolar (Buenos Aires: Fraterna, 1979). • Breve Santoral (Buenos Aires: Ediciones de arte Gaglianone, 1985. • Silvina Ocampo (New York Review Books, 2015). Selection of poems translated by Jason Weiss. Children's stories • El cofre volante (Buenos Aires: Estrada, 1974). • El tobogán (Buenos Aires: Estrada, 1975). • El caballo alado (Buenos Aires: De la flor, 1976). • La naranja maravillosa (Buenos Aires: Sudamericana, 1977). Anthologies • Antología de la literatura fantástica, Buenos Aires, Sudamericana, 1940. translated as The Book of Fantasy, 1988 • Antología poética Argentina, Buenos Aires, Sudamericana, 1941. • Pequeña antología, Buenos Aires, Editorial Ene, 1954. • El pecado mortal (anthology of relatos), Buenos Aires, Eudeba, 1966. • Informe del cielo y del infierno (anthology of relatos), prologue by Edgardo Cozarinsky, Caracas, Monte Ávila, 1970. • La continuación y otras páginas, Buenos Aires, Centro Editor de América Latina, 1981. • Encuentros con Silvina Ocampo, dialogues with Noemí Ulla, Buenos Aires, Editorial de Belgrano, 1982. • Páginas de Silvina Ocampo, selections by the author, prologue by Enrique Pezzoni, Buenos Aires, Editorial Celtia, 1984. • Las reglas del secreto (anthology), Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1991. • Poemas, Emily Dickinson, translated by Silvina Ocampo, prologue by Jorge Luis Borges, España, Tusquets, 1997 == Awards and honors ==

• 1945: Premio Municipal de Poesía, for Espacios métricos • 1953: Segundo Premio Nacional de Poesía, for Los nombres • 1954: Premio Municipal de Literatura • 1962: Premio Nacional de Poesía, for Lo amargo por dulce • 1988: Premio del Club de los 13, for Cornelia frente al espejo • 1992: Gran Premio de Honor de la SADE ==References==