Background On 23 August 1939,
Nazi Germany and the
Soviet Union signed the
Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, which contained agreements to divide Europe into
spheres of influence, with Lithuania falling into Germany's sphere of influence. On 28 September 1939, the USSR and Germany signed the
Frontier Treaty and its secret protocol, by which Lithuania was placed in the USSR's sphere of influence in exchange for Germany gaining an increased share of Polish territory, which had already been occupied. The next day, the USSR offered Lithuania an agreement on the establishment of Soviet military bases in its territory. During the negotiations, the Lithuanian delegation was told of the division of the spheres of influence. The Soviets threatened that if Lithuania refused to host the bases,
Vilnius could be annexed to
Belarus (at that time the majority of population in Vilnius and Vilnius region were
Polish people). In these circumstances a
Lithuania–USSR agreement on mutual assistance was signed in
Moscow on 10 October 1939, allowing a Soviet military presence in Lithuania. A total of 18,786
Red Army troops were deployed at strategically important locations within the country:
Alytus,
Prienai,
Gaižiūnai, and
Naujoji Vilnia. This move effectively ended Lithuanian neutrality and brought it directly under Soviet influence.
Occupation and annexation While Germany was conducting its
military campaign in Western Europe in May and June 1940, the USSR invaded the Baltic states. On 14 June 1940, an ultimatum was served to Lithuania on the alleged grounds of abduction of Red Army troops. The ultimatum said Lithuania should remove officials that the USSR found unsuitable (the Minister of the Interior and the Head of the Security Department in particular), replace the government, and allow an unlimited number of Red Army troops to enter the country. The acceptance of the ultimatum would have meant the loss of sovereignty, but Soviet foreign minister
Vyacheslav Molotov declared to diplomat
Juozas Urbšys that, whatever the reply may be, "troops will enter Lithuania tomorrow nonetheless". The ultimatum was a violation of every prior agreement between Lithuania and the USSR and of
international law governing the relations of
sovereign states. The last session of the government of the Republic of Lithuania was called to discuss the ultimatum, leaving Prime Minister
Antanas Merkys in Lithuania. Before his departure, Smetona transferred most presidential duties to Merkys. Under the constitution, the prime minister became acting president whenever the president was unable to carry out his duties. meeting with soldiers of the
Lithuanian People's Army in July 1940 Meanwhile, the 8th and 11th armies of the USSR, comprising a total of 15 divisions, crossed the border. Flying squads took over the airports of Kaunas, Radviliškis, and Šiauliai. Regiments of the Red Army disarmed the Lithuanian military, took over its assets, and supported local communists. On 16 June, Merkys announced in a national radio broadcast that he had deposed Smetona, and was now president in his own right. On 17 June, the cabinet resolved that Smetona had effectively abandoned his post by leaving the country and confirmed Merkys as president without any qualifiers. '' Later that day, under pressure from Moscow, on 17 June 1940, Merkys appointed
Justas Paleckis prime minister and resigned soon after. Paleckis then assumed presidential duties, and
Vincas Krėvė was appointed prime minister. The
Communist Party was legalized again and began publication of its papers and staging meetings to support the new government. Opposition organizations and newspapers were outlawed, and ties abroad cut. On 14–15 July,
elections took place for a "
People's Seimas." The only contender was the
Union of the Working People of Lithuania, a front for the Communists. Citizens were mandated to vote, and the results of the elections were likely falsified. At its first meeting on 21 July, the new People's Seimas declared that the Lithuanian people desired to join the Soviet Union. Accordingly, it unanimously changed Lithuania's official name to the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic (LSSR) and formally petitioned to join the Soviet Union as a constituent republic. Resolutions to start the country's Sovietisation were passed the same day. On 3 August, a Lithuanian delegation of prominent public figures was dispatched to Moscow to sign the document by which Lithuania acceded to the USSR. After the signing, Lithuania was annexed to the USSR. On 25 August 1940, an extraordinary session of the People's Seimas reorganized itself as the provisional Supreme Soviet of the LSSR, ratified the Constitution of the LSSR, which in form and substance was similar to the
1936 Constitution of the Soviet Union.
German invasion and the second Soviet occupation ) and soldiers in
Cathedral Square in
Vilnius. Lithuania was briefly liberated from the Soviet occupation during the
June Uprising in 1941, but was soon
occupied by Germany. On 22 June 1941, Nazi Germany
invaded the USSR and occupied all of Lithuania within a month. The
Lithuanian Activist Front (LAF), a resistance organisation founded in Berlin and led by
Kazys Škirpa whose goal was to liberate Lithuania and re-establish its independence, cooperated with the Nazis. The LAF was responsible for killing many
Lithuanian Jews (during the first days of
the Holocaust in Lithuania). Škirpa was named prime minister in the
Provisional Government of Lithuania; however, the Germans placed him under
house arrest and dissolved the LAF on 5 August 1941. During the German occupation, Lithuania was made part of the
Reichskommissariat Ostland. Between July and October 1944, the
Red Army entered Lithuania once again, and the second Soviet government began. The first post-war elections took place in the winter of 1946 to elect 35 representatives to the LSSR Supreme Council. The results were again likely falsified to show an attendance rate of at over 90% and to establish an absolute victory for Communist Party candidates. The LSSR Supreme Council under Paleckis was formally the supreme governmental authority; in reality, power was in the hands of the
first secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party, a post held by
Antanas Sniečkus until 1974.
Red Army crimes Upon recapturing Lithuania from the retreating Germans in 1944, the Red Army immediately began committing
war crimes. The situation was so extreme that even Sniečkus complained to
Lavrentiy Beria on 23 July that "If such robbery and violence continues in
Kaunas, this will burst our last sympathy for the Red Army". Beria passed this complaint on to
Joseph Stalin. In a special report on the situation in the
Klaipėda Region, the head of the local
NKGB operational group wrote that: In the same report, the mass rape of Lithuanian women in the Klaipėda and Šilutė regions was reported: In Klaipėda Lithuanian men aged 17 to 48 were arrested and deported. In December 1944, Chief of the Priekulė
KGB Kazakov wrote to the LSSR Minister of the Interior Josifas Bertašiūnas that due to the soldiers' violence most of the houses in Priekulė were unsuitable for living in: windows were knocked out, fireplaces disassembled, furniture and agricultural inventory broken up and exported as scrap. Many Red Army soldiers engaged in robbery, rape, and murder, and Lithuanians who saw soldiers at night would often run from their homes and hide. Other regions of the LSSR also suffered heavily. For example, on 26 December 1944, Kaunas'
NKGB representative Rodionov wrote to the USSR and LSSR Ministers of the Interior that due to the violence and mass arrests by the
counterintelligence units of
SMERSH, many Kaunas inhabitants were forced into crime. Eleven SMERSH subdivisions did not obey any orders, not even those from the NKGB. Chief of the Vilnius Garrison, P. Vetrov, in his order described discipline violations: on 18 August a soldier went fishing with explosives in the
Neris river; on 19 August a fifteen-minute firefight took place between the garrison soldiers and prison guards; on 22 August drunk officers shot at each other. On 1 October 1944, Chief of the Kaunas
NKVD G. Svečnikov reported that on the night of 19 October two aviation unit soldiers killed the Mavraušaitis family during a burglary.
Sovietisation The
Sovietisation of Lithuania began with the strengthening of the supervision of the Communist Party. Officials were sent from Moscow to set up bodies of local governance. They were exclusively Lithuanian, with trustworthy Russian specialists for assistants – it was these who were in effective control. By the spring of 1945, 6,100 Russian-speaking workers had been sent to Lithuania. Well-off farmers would be exiled, and the livestock of the peasants from the surrounding areas would be herded to their properties. Since kolkhozes had to donate a large portion of their produce to the state, the people working there lived in poorer conditions than the rest of the nation. Their pay would often be delayed and made in kind and their movement to cities was restricted. This collectivisation ended in 1953. Lithuania became home to factories and power plants, in a bid to integrate the country into the economic system of the USSR. The output of major factories would be exported from the republic as there was a lack of local demand. This process of industrialisation was followed by urbanisation, as villages for the workers had to be established or expanded in the vicinity of the new factories, resulting in new towns such as
Baltoji Vokė,
Naujoji Akmenė,
Elektrėnai and
Sniečkus or expansion of old ones such as
Jonava. Residents would be relocated from elsewhere in the LSSR, and from other USSR republics. By 1979, more than half of population lived in urban areas. All symbols of the former Republic of Lithuania were removed from public view by 1950, and the country had its history rewritten and its achievements belittled. The veneration of Stalin was spread and the role of Russia and the USSR in the history of Lithuania was highlighted. People were encouraged to join the Communist Party and communist organisations. Science and art based on communist ideology and their expression controlled by censorship mechanisms. People were encouraged into atheism in an attempt to secularise Lithuania, with monasteries closed, religion classes prohibited and church-goers persecuted.
Armed resistance The second Soviet occupation was followed by armed resistance in 1944–1953, aiming to restore an independent Lithuania, re-establish capitalism and eradicate communism, and bring back national identity and freedom of faith. Partisans were labelled bandits by the Soviets. They were forced into the woods and into armed resistance by the Soviet rule. Armed skirmishes with the Red Army were common between 1944 and 1946. From the summer of 1946 a partisan organisational structure was established, with units of 5–15 partisans living in bunkers. Guerrilla warfare with surprise attacks was the preferred tactic. In 1949 the
Union of Lithuanian Freedom Fighters under
Jonas Žemaitis–Vytautas was founded. Partisan units became smaller still, consisting of 3 to 5 partisans. Open fighting was a rarity, with sabotage and terrorism preferred. Despite guerrilla warfare failing to achieve its objectives and claiming the lives of more than 20,000 fighters, it demonstrated to the world that Lithuania's joining the USSR had not been a voluntary act and highlighted the desire of many Lithuanians to be independent.
Deportations ) by the grave of her daughter in
Ust-Omchug In the fall of 1944, lists of 'bandits' and 'bandit family' members to be deported appeared. Deportees were marshaled and put on a USSR-bound trains in Kaunas in early May 1945, reaching their destination in Tajikistan in summer. Once there, they employed as forced labour at cotton plantations. In May 1945, a new wave of deportations from every county took place, enforced by battlegroups made of NKVD and
NKGB staff and NKVD troops – the destruction battalions, or
istrebitels. On 18–21 February 1946, deportations began in four counties: Alytus, Marijampolė, Lazdijai, and Tauragė. On 12 December 1947 the Central Committee of the Lithuanian Communist Party resolved that actions against supporters of resistance were too weak and that additional measures were in order. A new series of deportations began and 2,782 people were deported in December. In January–February 1948, another 1,134 persons were exiled from every county in Lithuania. By May 1948, the total number of deportees had risen to 13,304. In May 1948, preparations for very large-scale deportations were being made, with 30,118 staff members from Soviet organisations involved. On 22–23 May 1948, a large-scale deportation operation called
Vesna began, leading to 36,932 arrests, a figure that later increased to 40,002. The second major mass deportation, known as
Operation Priboi, took place on 25–28 March 1949, during which the authorities put 28,981 persons into livestock cars and dispatched them deep into the USSR. Some people went into hiding and managed to escape the deportations, but then a manhunt began in April. As a result, another two echelons left for the remote regions of the USSR. During March–April 1949, a total of some 32,000 people were deported from Lithuania. By 1952, 10 more operations had been staged, but of a smaller scale. The last deportations took place in 1953, when people were deported to the district of Tomsk and the regions of Altai and Krasnoyarsk.
Dissident movement 's execution room where prisoners were killed and later buried in mass graves outside Vilnius, now the
Museum of Occupations and Freedom Fights Even after the guerrilla resistance had been quelled, Soviet authorities failed to suppress the movement for Lithuania's independence. Underground dissident groups had been active from the 1950s, publishing periodicals and Catholic literature. They fostered national culture, celebrated historical events, instigated patriotism and encouraged hopes for independence. In the 1970s, dissidents established the
Lithuanian Liberty League under Antanas Terleckas. Founded in Vilnius in the wake of an
international conference in Helsinki, Finland, which recognised the borders established after the Second World War, the
Lithuanian Helsinki Group demanded that Lithuania's occupation be recognised as illegal and the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact be condemned. The dissidents ensured that the world would receive information about the situation in the LSSR and human rights violations, which caused Moscow to soften the regime. In 1972, young
Romas Kalanta immolated himself in Kaunas in a public display of protest against the regime. This was followed by
public unrest, demonstrating that a large portion of the population were against the regime. The
Catholic Church took an active part in opposing the Soviets. The clergy published chronicles of the Catholic Church of Lithuania, secretly distributed in Lithuania and abroad. The faithful would gather in small groups to teach their children religion, celebrate religious holidays, and use national and religious symbols. The most active repressed figures of the movement were
Vincentas Sladkevičius,
Sigitas Tamkevičius, and
Nijolė Sadūnaitė.
Collapse of Soviet rule on 23 August 1988 In the 1980s, the USSR sank into a deep economic crisis. In 1985,
Mikhail Gorbachev was elected head of the USSR's Communist party and undertook internal reforms which had the effect of liberalising society (whilst actually increasing the economic chaos) and a new approach to foreign policy that effectively ended the Cold War. This encouraged the activity of anti-communist movements within the USSR, the LSSR included. On 23 August 1987, the
Lithuanian Liberty League initiated an unsanctioned meeting in front of the monument to
Adomas Mickevičius in Vilnius. At the meeting, the Molotov–Ribbentrop pact was condemned for the first time in public. The meeting and the speeches made at it were widely reported by western radio stations. Also meeting was reported by Central Television and even
TV Vilnius. In May 1987, the Lithuanian Cultural Fund was established to engage in environmental activity and the protection of Lithuanian cultural assets. On 3 June 1988, the Lithuanian Reformation Movement (LRM) was founded; its mission was to restore the statehood of Lithuania; LRM supporters formed groups across Lithuania. On 23 August 1988, a meeting took place at
Vingis Park in Vilnius, with a turnout of about 250,000 people. On 23 August 1989, marking 50 years of the Molotov–Ribbentrop pact and aiming to draw the world's attention to the occupation of the Baltic states, the
Baltic Way event was staged. Organised by the Lithuanian Reformation Movement, the Baltic Way was a chain of people holding hands that stretched for nearly to connect the three Baltic capitals of Vilnius, Riga, and Tallinn. It was a display of the aspiration of the Lithuanian, Latvian, and Estonian people to part ways with the USSR. The LSSR
de facto ceased to exist on 11 March 1990, with the Reconstituent Seimas declaring Lithuania's independence restored. It took the line that since Lithuania's membership in the USSR was a violation of international law, it was reasserting an independence that still legally existed. Therefore, the Reconstituent Seimas argued that Lithuania did not need to follow the formal procedure of secession from the USSR.
Independence restored Lithuania declared the sovereignty of its territory on 18 May 1989 and
declared independence from the Soviet Union on 11 March 1990 under its pre-1940 name, the
Republic of Lithuania. Lithuania was the first Baltic state to
assert state continuity, and the first Soviet Republic to declare full independence from the Union (though
Estonia was the first Soviet Republic to assert its national sovereignty and the supremacy of its national laws over the laws of the Soviet Union). All of the Soviet Union's claims on Lithuania were repudiated as Lithuania declared the
restitution of its independence. The Soviet Union claimed that this declaration was illegal, as Lithuania had to follow the process of secession mandated in the Soviet Constitution if it wanted to leave. Lithuania contended that it did not need to follow the process of secession because the entire process by which Lithuania joined the Soviet Union violated both Lithuanian and international law. Specifically, it contended that Smetona never resigned, making Merkys' takeover of the presidency illegal and unconstitutional. Therefore, Lithuania argued that all acts leading up to the Soviet takeover were
ipso facto null and void, and it was simply reasserting an independence that still existed under international law. The Soviet Union threatened to invade, but the
Russian SFSR's
declaration of sovereignty on 12 June meant that the Soviet Union could not enforce Lithuania's retention. While other republics held the
union-wide referendum in March to restructure the Soviet Union in a
loose form, Lithuania, along with
Estonia,
Latvia,
Armenia,
Georgia, and
Moldova did not take part. Lithuania held an
independence referendum earlier that month, with 93.2% voting for it.
Iceland immediately recognised Lithuania's independence. Other countries followed suit after the
failed coup in August, with the
State Council of the Soviet Union recognising Lithuania's independence on 6 September 1991. The Soviet Union officially ceased to exist on 26 December 1991. It was agreed that the
Soviet Army (later the Russian Army) must leave Lithuania because it was stationed without any legal reason. Its troops withdrew in 1993. ==Politics==