In Confucianism and Taoism, the terms "Lord Heaven" and "
Jade Emperor" were sometimes used for a supreme deity regarded as an
anthropomorphized form of Tian, and in some interpretations these names were considered synonymous. Tian was described as "the dwelling place of
gods and other superhuman beings". It was also regarded as "the guardian of both the moral laws of mankind and the physical laws of nature... and is synonymous with the divine will." In Chinese culture, heaven has often been associated with "order," serving as "the blueprint for creation," "the
mandate by which earthly rulers govern," and "the standard by which to measure beauty, goodness, and truth."
Confucianism Confucianism contains a religious dimension characterized by reverence for Heaven (Tian) and Earth (
Dì), which were regarded as powers regulating the natural world and influencing human affairs. Within this framework, harmony was regarded as "the basis for a sincere mind."
Confucius The concept of Tian was central in the teachings of Confucius. He expressed trust in Heaven and believed that it overruled human effort. He saw himself as fulfilling the will of Heaven, which, in his view, would not allow him to die before completing his mission. References to Heaven appear throughout the
Analects, where Confucius described its attributes and authority. Confucius honored Heaven as the supreme source of goodness: The Master said, "Great indeed was Yao as a sovereign! How majestic was he! It is only Heaven that is grand, and only Yao corresponded to it. How vast was his virtue! The people could find no name for it. How majestic was he in the works which he accomplished! How glorious in the elegant regulations which he instituted!" He also acknowledged personal dependence upon Heaven: The Master said, "Wherein I have done improperly, may Heaven reject me! May Heaven reject me!" Confucius taught that Heaven could not be deceived: The Master, being very ill, Zi Lu wished the disciples to act as ministers to him. During a remission of his illness, he said, "Long has the conduct of You been deceitful! By pretending to have ministers when I have them not, whom should I impose upon? Should I impose upon Heaven? Moreover, rather than that I should die in the hands of ministers, is it not better that I should die in the hands of you, my disciples? And though I may not get a great burial, shall I die upon the road?" He believed that Heaven assigned tasks to people in order to teach them virtue and morality: The Master said, "At fifteen, I had my mind bent on learning. At thirty, I stood firm. At forty, I had no doubts. At fifty, I knew the decrees of Heaven. At sixty, my ear was an obedient organ for the reception of truth. At seventy, I could follow what my heart desired, without transgressing what was right." Confucius expressed confidence that Heaven knew and approved of his work, even if human rulers did not recognize him: The Master said, "Alas! there is no one that knows me." Zi Gong said, "What do you mean by thus saying—that no one knows you?" The Master replied, "I do not murmur against Heaven. I do not grumble against men. My studies lie low, and my penetration rises high. But there is Heaven—that knows me!" He also expressed complete trust in the providence of Heaven, even in times of danger: The Master was put in fear in Kuang. He said, "After the death of King Wen, was not the cause of truth lodged here in me? If Heaven had wished to let this cause of truth perish, then I, a future mortal, should not have obtained such a relation to that cause. While Heaven does not let the cause of truth perish, what can the people of Kuang do to me?"
Mozi For
Mozi, Heaven was regarded as the divine ruler, in the same way that the
Son of Heaven functioned as the earthly ruler. Mozi accepted the existence of spirits and minor demons—or at least argued that rituals should be performed as if they existed for social reasons—but considered their role to be carrying out the will of Heaven by observing human conduct and punishing wrongdoers. He taught that Heaven loves all people equally and that individuals should therefore extend love impartially to all human beings, without distinguishing between relatives and strangers. Mozi also criticized the Confucians of his time for failing to follow what he considered the authentic teachings of Confucius. In his
Will of Heaven (Tiānzhì, ), he wrote: "Moreover, I know Heaven loves men dearly not without reason. Heaven ordered the sun, the moon, and the stars to enlighten and guide them. Heaven ordained the four seasons—Spring, Autumn, Winter, and Summer—to regulate them. Heaven sent down snow, frost, rain, and dew to grow the five grains and flax and silk so the people could use and enjoy them. Heaven established the hills and rivers, ravines and valleys, and arranged many things to minister to man's good or bring him evil. He appointed the dukes and lords to reward the virtuous and punish the wicked, and to gather metal and wood, birds and beasts, and to engage in cultivating the five grains and flax and silk to provide for the people's food and clothing. This has been so from antiquity to the present."
Schools of cosmology Three major schools addressed the structure of Tian, from which most later hypotheses were derived. •
Gàitiān shuō (, "canopy-heavens hypothesis"): Originating in the
Zhoubi Suanjing, it proposed that the earth was covered by a material heaven resembling a canopy. •
Hùntiān shuō (, "egg-like hypothesis"): Suggested that the earth was surrounded by a spherical heaven rotating around it, with celestial bodies attached to the heavenly sphere. (See also: ,
Chinese creation myth.) •
Xuānyè shuō (, "firmament hypothesis"): Described heaven as infinite space, with celestial bodies regarded as light substances floating within it and moved by
qi. A summary by Ji Meng ()appears in the astronomical chapters of the
Book of Jin. These schools shaped popular conceptions of the
universe and the earth until the
17th century, when they were gradually replaced by cosmological theories introduced from
Europe. In some traditions, the sky was also divided into the
Jiǔtiān (, "nine divisions of heaven"): the central sky and the eight directions.
Buddhism In
Buddhist cosmology, Tian (天) refers to the
heavenly realms and
pure lands. Certain classes of
devas are also referred to as Tian.
Taoism In Taoism, the number of vertical heavenly layers varies across traditions. A common belief holds that there are 36 Tian (heavens), "arranged on six levels," each presided over by different deities. and rivalries between them were occasionally described. Some Taoist traditions, such as
Shangqing Daoism regarded certain heavens as malevolent, although Tian was more commonly conceived as a positive or benevolent force. In some interpretations, heaven is viewed as synonymous with the Dao, or as a natural energy accessible through living in harmony with the Dao. Higher spiritual manifestations of Daoist figures such as Laozi were believed to exist there during their lifetimes, absorbing the "purest
yīn and yáng." Many practitioners of ancient folk religion also believed in the existence of a Tao realm.
Yiguandao In
Yiguandao, Tian (heaven) is divided into three vertical worlds: •
Lǐ Tiān (, "heaven of truth") •
Qì Tiān (, "heaven of spirit") •
Xiàng Tiān (, "heaven of matter") == Japanese interpretations ==