Upper Skagit Indian Tribe

The tribe was initially called "The Skagit Tribe of Indians", but changed their name in 1958. The name "Skagit" is an anglicization of the Lushootseed word , which refers to the Skagit people of Whidbey Island, whose territory encompassed the land around Penn Cove. "Upper Skagit" in particular refers to the peoples whose villages were located along the Skagit River and its tributaries, contrasting with the "Lower Skagit" of Whidbey island. Early settlers applied the name to both the Skagit proper, as well as those living along the Skagit River, creating the distinction between the "Upper" and "Lower" Skagits. In historic times, the peoples of the Skagit river would have used the term , to refer to themselves as a unit. The Lushootseed word is composed of the nominalizing prefix , and the root . == Predecessor bands ==

The Upper Skagit Indian Tribe is descended from several aboriginal village groups (also called bands, tribes, or (extended) villages) who had villages along the Skagit River and its tributaries. These villages are counted between nine and eleven. The Sauk-Suiattle have historically been considered a part of the Upper Skagit by some anthropologists due to their closeness. However, modern scholars separate the two groups due to the existence as a distinct tribal entity. == History ==

Oral tradition and prehistory According to Upper Skagit oral tradition, it was '''', the culture hero of the Upper Skagit, who changed the world into how it is today. , according to tradition, is a noble and benevolent being in the form of a man with blue eyes and white hair. He reduced the intelligence and size of animals, making it so humans could form a society. Additionally, he taught mankind craftwork and art. According to their traditions, he would at one point return once again. Others who are involved in the origin stories of the Upper Skagit include the trickster-changers: Raven, Mink, and Coyote. The earliest humans in the Puget Sound region likely arrived roughly 12,000 years ago. Tools belonging to the old Cordilleran culture have been found, pointing to a period where humans relied primarily on big game hunting for survival. This period was possibly followed by the development of the marine culture in the Early Maritime period, which has been well-studied in the Fraser Valley region. Following this was the Intermediate period, roughly from 700 to 1250 CE. By this time, local peoples had begun utilizing both marine and inland resources. The Recent period, roughly from 1250 to 1750 CE, was categorized by the development (and continued use) of fortifications, new projectile and spear points, and new styles of fish hooks. This period led into the Historic period of the 18th century to present. Prior to the Historic period, the predecessor bands of the Upper Skagit Tribe built permanent settlements up and down the Skagit River, and built summer camps in the forests and on the mountains near their homes. Roots and plants such as potatoes were cultivated in prairies, and clams were dug across the coast at places like Padilla Bay. Early colonial period The first Europeans to record their encounter the with the predecessors of the Upper Skagit were the crew of José María Narváez and the Santa Saturnina around 1791. When they arrived in what they called the "Seno de Padilla" (Padilla Bay), they could see many people who were gathering shellfish, likely from a nearby Nuwhaha village which was located on the bay. Nearby, on Boundary Bay, they had met other peoples who they were surprised to find large amounts of European trade goods and even horses in their possession, with locals even saying that they had seen ships even larger pass by before, implying that there had been previous contact between the Indigenous peoples of the region and Europeans, albeit unrecorded. Padilla Bay was again visited by Europeans in June 1792, by George Vancouver. Once again they watched the people working in the bay, this time fishing from their canoes. There were several other periodic visits from Europeans into the region, although they never came inland enough to come into contact with the peoples of the Skagit River. Despite this, there were likely Upper Skagit who would have seen the European ships as they travelled outside their territory. After the establishment of forts Langley and Victoria in modern-day British Columbia, it was common for the Upper Skagit peoples to visit the forts to trade. It became tradition to visit one of the forts (usually Victoria) at least once during one's life. Sometime before 1855, a man named (also called Slaybebtikud, Stababutkin, or Captain Campbell) gained a large religious following among the Upper Skagit. was born at the Snohomish village of to a Nespelem man, also called , who had moved west of the Cascade mountains. Although (the younger) lived on the western side of the mountains, he would often visit his family on the eastern side. There, he became acquainted with a Frenchman named Eugene Casimir Chirouse, who would later become a famous Catholic missionary in the Puget Sound region. When Chirouse arrived in Puget Sound, offered to translate, knowing both the Okanagan language (which Chirouse had learned) as well as the local language of Lushootseed. After the death of his first wife, he remarried into a highly prestigious Nuwaha family under the famous warrior-leader Petius, which greatly increased his prestige. He became a famous orator and missionary, introducing his own brand of religion to the Upper Skagit, which was a mixture of the Prophet Dance of the plateau, Catholicism, and the local religion. established himself as the leader of this religion, deviating significantly from the traditionally democratic social order at the time, holding widely attended church sessions during the summer at his large wooden house near what is today Rockport. Eventually, would establish himself as the sole "chief" of the Upper Skagit, uniting the once-independent peoples of the Skagit River around himself. In 1855, Isaac Stevens, the first Territorial Governor of Washington, selected representatives from many tribes in the Puget Sound area to sign the Treaty of Point Elliott. Only two Upper Skagit tribes sent representatives: the Nookachamps and the Mesekwigwils. The Nookachamps were represented by Chlahben, and the Mesekwigwils were represented by Sdzekdunum. Other prominent leaders, such as , attended the treaty convention, but did not sign it. To this day, all members of the Upper Skagit Indian Tribe are descended from or otherwise related to those that signed the treaty. The Upper Skagit continued to live traditionally, hunting and fishing along the banks of the Skagit River and in the surrounding forests. Furthermore, the settlers trespassed on lands containing graves and burned down a village of eight longhouses at the confluence of the Skagit and Sauk rivers. This new pressure from settlement caused the Upper Skagit to resist further settlement, and increased tensions between the settlers and the Indigenous peoples of the Skagit River. In 1990, the Upper Skagit were joined by the Suquamish Tribe, the Stillaguamish Tribe, and the Sauk-Suiattle Tribe in signing a pact with the Washington State Department of Fish and Wildlife to adopt "comprehensive internal hunting regulations", by which the tribes would "set seasons, report kills, and issue hunting and identification requirements, much to the displeasure of non-Indian sportsmen". == Government ==

Historically, the society of the Upper Skagit peoples was based on extensive kinship ties. The highest level of permanent authority was never above the family unit, and as such, "chiefs" (as they are described in the literature) were non-existent at the time of colonization. During the colonial period, Upper Skagit society began to shift towards centralization, and certain figures began to appear whose influence and authority reached outside of their family and across society. Several figures emerged during this period, including . himself was followed by his son, John Campbell. John Campbell's sister, Lahabulitsa, succeeded him. When she died, she was succeeded by John Campbell's son, Joseph Campbell. When Joseph Campbell died, his eldest son, John Campbell became chief. By 1974, the Chief of the Upper Skagit was Peter Campbell, his eldest brother and the second son of Joseph Campbell. Today, the Upper Skagit Indian Tribe is governed by the Upper Skagit Tribal Council, a seven-member elected body which carries out the governmental responsibilities of the tribe. The chairman of the tribe is elected through a popular vote from all members of the tribe. ==Upper Skagit Indian Reservation==

The Upper Skagit Indian Reservation was established on September 10, 1981. It consists of three separate small parcels of land in western Skagit County. The largest section, located northeast of Sedro Woolley, is at , while the smaller western sections are at , and at , about midway between Seattle and Vancouver, BC on Interstate Highway 5. The total land area is approximately 107 acres (0.404686 km2). == Demographics ==

Around 1855, there were about 300 people who lived along the Skagit River. In 1984, there were 233 members of the Upper Skagit Indian Tribe. In 1994, the tribe had 600 members, and by 2008, the tribe had 1,031 citizens. Most tribal members live in Skagit County and are employed in surrounding communities. In 2004, the tribe was awarded a grant of $1,369,611 to build affordable housing on the reservation. == Economy and services ==

For most of history, prior to the formation of the Upper Skagit Indian Tribe, the precursor groups were hunter-gatherers who relied on hunting, fishing, and gathering for subsistence. This has carried on to today, and members of the tribe utilize their treaty rights to participate in traditional hunting, fishing, and gathering throughout the Skagit Valley. From 1792 to the mid-20th century, the economy gradually shifted from one based on hunting and gathering, to one based on agriculture and wage labor. Furthermore, as the economy shifted towards wage labor, economic independence dropped, as people began to rely more on food, tools, weapons, and jobs which were introduced and supplied by settlers. Early after contact, trade with settlers became a large factor in the Indigenous economy. Trading posts in forts allowed people to buy trade goods, as well as new foods, which could be planted. Logging in the region started around 1865. Settlers opened logging camps that employed both Indians and Whites, and as more settlers came to the region, they further utilized the Native population for their labor, both in the forests, the home (as domestic laborers), and in their farms. In the 20th century, logging became the main industry in which Upper Skagit citizens were employed. By 1974, most Upper Skagit continued to be employed in the logging industry. Some Upper Skagit were employed as letter carriers, using their canoes to travel swiftly up and down the Skagit River. The Upper Skagit Indian Tribe operates the Skagit Valley Casino Resort, which is located off Interstate 5 near Burlington. The casino opened in 1995 and is . It employs 450 people and attracts 1 million visitors annually. The Upper Skagit Tribe also has managed the Resort Semiahmoo, which is located near Blaine, since 2003. The Tribe provides health services to its citizens from its Upper Skagit Tribal Health Facility, a facility that provides primary care and other social services. The Upper Skagit Tribe is one of the three member nations (alongside the Swinomish Indian Tribal Community and the Sauk-Suiattle Indian Tribe) of the Skagit System Cooperative, an inter-tribal organization that regulates and enhances fishing along the Skagit River. The tribe operates a hatchery on the Skagit River, which facilitated the return of coho salmon to the reservation in 2008 for the first time in 50 years. In 2009, the Upper Skagit tribe received a $105,000 grant to restore 140 acres of salmon habitat near the reservation. Over 500 people are employed by the Upper Skagit Tribe on the reservation, both in government and business positions. == Culture ==

The tribe holds the annual Upper Skagit Celebration and Stick Game Tournament each year in August, which is held in Sedro-Wooley. Religion The Upper Skagit were introduced to Christianity by , and many initially converted to Roman Catholicism. By the 20th century, another Christian religion had gained prominence, that being the Indian Shaker Church. The Indian Shaker Church originated in Mud Bay, Washington, and is a syncretic religion which combines elements of both Christian beliefs and Indigenous beliefs, to various degrees in various churches. In the mid-1900s, other Upper Skagit still followed the traditional Indigenous religion. Since 1947, various Evangelical Protestant churches, such as the Pentecostal Church, began encouraging Upper Skagits to become members. Although most members of the congregation were white by the 1970s, there were a growing number of Upper Skagit members of the congregation. Language The Upper Skagit peoples speak Northern Lushootseed, a Central Coast Salish language spoken by a variety of Indigenous peoples across Puget Sound. The dialect spoken by the Upper Skagit is called Skagit (), which consists of three mutually-intelligible sub-dialects: Lower Skagit, Upper Skagit, and Sauk. Use of Lushootseed has declined since the beginning of the colonial period, and the last fluent native speaker of Lushootseed, Vi Hilbert, an Upper Skagit citizen, died in 2008. Today, the language is primarily spoken in ceremonial contexts. Despite this, there are efforts across Puget Sound to revitalize the language. Vi Hilbert dedicated much of her life to recording and revitalizing the language. == See also ==