Turkish–Venetian wars

Since the 13th century, the Serenissima had controlled a vast maritime empire in the Levantine Mediterranean, the Stato da Mar, established partly at the expense of the possessions of the Byzantine Empire. In the second half of the 14th century, the expansion of the Ottoman Turks had been essentially land-based, and although the new eastern power posed a threat to Byzantine coastal emporiums and inland trade routes, the lack of Turkish naval power did not represent a direct threat to Venetian possessions. From the beginning of the 15th century, however, the Turks had begun to equip themselves with their own navy, drawing on the capabilities of the Greeks in the conquered regions, leading to the first clashes with Venetian fleets, such as the great battle fought off Gallipoli in the Dardanelles, which ended with the destruction of the Ottoman fleet. In 1423, Venice took possession of the great city of Thessalonica, the second largest in the Empire, which had already been under siege by the Turks for a year. The city had been sold to Venice by the despot Andronicus Palaiologos, in the hope that Venice would be able to preserve it from Muslim conquest. The Venetians held the city until March 1430, when it was finally taken by the Ottomans. The fall of Constantinople in 1453 had also demonstrated for the first time the true naval, as well as land, power of the Ottoman Empire, which had replaced the Byzantine Empire in the territories. Venice, although allied with the dying Eastern Roman Empire until the end, after the fall of the ancient imperial capital was quick to show its compliance with the new masters of the Eastern routes. On 18 April 1454, the ambassador Bartolomeo Marcello signed a treaty of mutual recognition with Sultan Mehmet II. Despite the facade, however, it was a fragile truce from the beginning, constantly threatened by minor violations that could, at any moment, be exploited by the Turks to spark a conflict. Venice itself, for its part, openly declared through its representatives at a council held in Mantua in 1460 that the agreement had been established out of necessity to defend its interests in the East, but that, if a Christian league were formed against the Great Turk, Venice would be willing to participate. ==Conflicts==

The First War of 1463–1479 The first conflict between Venice and the new Ottoman Empire lasted sixteen years between 1463 and 1479. Begun with the capture of Argos by the Turks, it ended, after various vicissitudes, with the loss for the Serenissima of the colony of Negroponte, part of the Cyclades, Lemnos and Venetian Albania. The losses were, however, compensated by the acquisition of the Kingdom of Cyprus, ceded to Venice by Queen Caterina Corner. The Second War of 1499–1503 The war of 1499–1503 led to the Turkish conquest of numerous Venetian strongholds in the Aegean and the Peloponnese namely Coron, Modon, Lepanto, and Durazzo. The Third War of 1537–1540 The conflict, fought between 1537 and 1540, led to the Ottoman conquest of the final part of the Peloponnese. A Holy League was formed in 1538 to counter the advance of the Ottoman Empire, which, allied with Francis I's France, wanted to divide Europe among itself. Despite successful resistance during the Ottoman siege of Corfu, the Holy League led at sea by the Genoese admiral Andrea Doria lost the Battle of Preveza against Hayreddin Barbarossa. The Republic of Venice was forced to sign the surrender, also losing the Cyclades islands with the exception of Tinos and the Sporades islands. The Fourth War of 1570–1573 The war, started in 1570 by Selim II with the invasion of the Cyprus, a Venetian colony, pushed in the West to the creation of a Holy League against the Turks between Venice, the Papacy, the Holy Roman Empire and the Kingdom of Spain, with its dependencies. From the fall of Nicosia to the long siege of Famagusta, which ended on 1 August 1571, and followed by the brutal massacre of the city's defenders and the commander Marcantonio Bragadin, followed the Battle of Lepanto, in which the Ottoman fleet was almost completely destroyed. The failed attempt to conquer Navarino in 1572, the loss of vigour on the part of the League after the victory, due to the disinterest of Philip II of Spain, fearful of giving Venice an excessive advantage, led to a halt in naval operations, which failed to recover Cyprus, nor to cause further damage to the Ottoman Empire, whose fleet was quickly rebuilt. The peace signed in March 1573 confirmed the loss of Cyprus for Venice, but equally left the mark of the vanished Ottoman invincibility at sea. The Fifth War of 1645–1669 The long conflict, fought between 1645 and 1669, centered on the interminable siege of Candia, which lasted 25 years, a city strenuously defended by the Serenissima as the capital of its most vital colony. The Republic of Venice repeatedly attacked the Turks with the Venetian Dardanelles Expedition, entrusted in succession to the admirals Leonardo Mocenigo, Lazzaro Mocenigo, Lorenzo Marcello, and Lorenzo Renier. The much superior Ottoman fleet was subdued several times, and the Venetians were able to plunder the Turkish coasts several times. After three years of blockading the Dardanelles Straits, the Venetians were forced to retreat in the face of an enemy capable of losing two entire fleets without stopping. The Turks were then able to resume the siege of the city of Candia. On September 5, 1669, after 20 years of siege, Candia signed its surrender, obtaining the honors of war. The Sixth War of 1684–1699 The last Venetian War against the Ottoman Empire, which lasted from 1684 - 1699, was declared to the Sublime Porte and resulted in Venetian controls established in the province now known as Morea or the Peloponnese peninsula. The famous Parthenon in Athens is one such instance of an unintended consequence that came about from this conflict; the Venetians caused its destruction as it served as a depot for the Ottoman Empire's cannon ammunition supply. Francesco Morosini was the highest-ranking military leader in this conflict (Captain General of the Sea), known for his cleverness in his campaigns against the Ottoman Empire throughout the Aegean Sea; he was thus nicknamed "the Peloponnesian." In addition to successfully seizing control over the cities of: Patras, the castles of Morea and Rumelia; the fortress of Lepanto; the city of Corinth; and all of the Peloponnese Peninsula, Venetian troops attempted to retake the island of Crete but had only succeeded in capturing the fortress of Gramvussa. The Seventh War of 1714–1718 The final conflict between the Republic of Venice and the Ottoman Empire spanned from 1714-1718, with the Turks, wanting to regain lost land gained from the previous war declaring war against the Serenissima. The much larger Turkish force led the Venetians to concentrate all of their defenses into the cities of Nafplio, Corinth, Monemvasia, Modone, Castel di Morea, as well as both fortresses of Chielafà and Zarnata. In the face of the financial and military efforts by the Venetians to defend against Turkish forces, the Muslims were penetrated into the Peloponnese while also capturing the last remaining Venetian fortresses in Crete (Suda and Spinalonga). When Ottoman forces arrived in Corfu, they encountered the Venetian Armata Grossa. A three-hour long battle ensued, where the Ottoman forces incurred the greatest number of casualties in the entire conflict with the Venetians, with the end result being that, although Turkish forces continued to attack, they were repulsed from Corfu. Following the July 19, 1717, victory of the Venetian fleet, in cooperation with a mixed squadron of Portuguese, Maltese, and Papal vessels, in the Battle of Matapan, the Treaty of Passarowitz concluded the hostilities; however, the Venetian Republic unsuccessfully attempted to regain control of the Peloponnese and was forced to settle for the return of Cerigo and Cerigotto and the recaptures of Butrint and annexation. == References ==