Venetian ceruse

Venetian ceruse was the most expensive and highly sought-after form of ceruse, making it almost exclusive to high status individuals or the wealthy class. It was favoured by the European aristocracy due to its high quality Another devout user of Venetian ceruse was Isabella d'Este, whose appearance demonstrated how ceruse caused permanent damage and premature ageing. In 1534, an account by Pietro Aretino described her "smeared face" as "dishonestly ugly and even more dishonestly made up." Although Venetian ceruse was certainly predominantly used by women, it was also thought to have been used by some men in royalty during the 16th century. A light skin complexion was sought after by men as it became a symbol of aristocracy, and suggested that the individual did not have to engage in labour work outdoors that would tan their skin. == Ceruse variants ==

Variants of ceruse differ based on their proportions of lead carbonate and white lead. Some sources state that Venetian ceruse was almost identical to regular ceruse, however due to its origins in Venice it was able to be marketed as the best available product on the market. Other sources state that there were marked differences between the two variants of ceruse. In contrast to regular ceruse, Venetian ceruse was said to be made from pure white lead that was more intense and concentrated in its form. Due to the high demand of ceruse sourced straight from Venice, there may have been counterfeit items for sale on the market. The disingenuous ceruse was thought to contain a mixture of chalk or whiting, which compromised the whiteness, brittleness and weight in comparison to Venetian ceruse. == Chemistry and manufacture ==

Chemical composition The primary active ingredient in Venetian ceruse was white lead (PbCO3·Pb(OH)2) also known as hydrocerrusite, which is a hydrate form of cerrusite. Cerrusite is also known as the heavy metal, lead carbonate (PbCO3), Apart from its adverse health effects on the human body, white lead had many qualities that made it a valuable ingredient for use in various cosmetic products during the 16th century. Its opaque nature made it an ideal product for concealing imperfections on the skin's surface. The presence of lead compounds in Venetian ceruse allowed it to be dissolved in water to form a thick paste that could be easily absorbed by the body through the skin. When mixed with vinegar, the white lead composition of Venetian ceruse had a cooling and drying effect Following the powerful influence of the Venetian Renaissance, Venice quickly became a major merchant and fashion capital The white lead present in ceruse was the same compound used in cosmetic products, in medications, and by artists to paint with on canvas. As such, the quality and purity of the ceruse was very important to the user. Some sources state that Venetian ceruse was much more expensive than regular ceruse due to its higher purity and refinement, selling for up to twice as much as regular lead white. == Side effects ==

Many users of Venetian ceruse were aware of its potential to cause adverse health side effects, however they continued to use the product regardless. It was not until the end of the 18th century that scientific studies officially concluded the severity of health problems caused by the presence of lead in cosmetic products. Some sources state that small amounts of lead carbonate exposed to humans can elevate blood levels to high levels of toxicity. and uncontrollable convulsions. Long-term usage of Venetian ceruse caused organ damage and in some cases eventual death. Lead toxicity has also been found to cause intellectual impairment and damage to the bones, kidneys, and liver in particular. of the product, creating a cycle whereby women were dependent on Venetian ceruse for vanity on a daily basis. The product was also commonly used to conceal blemishes, pimples, or freckles, or scars left over from diseases such as smallpox. It was thought that Elizabeth I of England may have contracted smallpox in 1562, which left scarring on her skin and brought about her later faithful use of Venetian ceruse to hide the blemishes that remained. == History ==

Historical uses of ceruse The practice of deliberate skin lightening initially began in ancient Rome, where lead carbonate was used to whiten the skin. The basic ingredient of cerussa was white lead, and it was used by Roman women to cover blemishes and enhance skin colour. During the Middle Ages, individuals had little access to effective medicine for treatment of the many diseases that were rampant at the time. Having fair, clear skin free from blemishes was therefore very highly sought after as it was considered to be a social indicator of an individual in good health and fertility for women. Despite the Elizabethan beauty ideals women faced, the wearing of cosmetics was not received well by the general public. Women who used cosmetic products, including Venetian ceruse, were often viewed as promiscuous and unfaithful. Some sources state that acne, a side effect of using ceruse, was even associated with witchcraft during the 16th century. Although the use of ceruse was rather visibly noticeable upon the individual's face, many women chose to keep their use of Venetian ceruse a secret and did not disclose this information even to their families. The use of Venetian ceruse was largely for the purpose of enhancing beauty by creating a smooth, natural complexion. However, many non-users made commentary on its unnatural appearance and condemned women for using lead-based cosmetics despite their known adverse side effects. Maria Coventry, Countess of Coventry was said to have adopted the beauty ideals of the time while in Paris, however her husband, Earl of Coventry, disapproved and attempted to wipe the Venetian ceruse from her face in public. Cosmetics were also referred to as the Latin word translating to "false colour", further suggesting that wearing makeup was "not natural". Skin lightening practices, such as the wearing of Venetian ceruse, may not have been directly racially motivated during the Elizabethan era. Rather, the pursuit of a fair complexion was largely driven by its associations with high status and wealth of the individual. This was because labour workers who performed outdoor work under direct sunlight developed tanned skin, whereas individuals in higher positions within society had the luxury of staying indoors and did not engage in employment. Elizabeth I of England was only ever depicted with fair white skin to emphasise her nobility and high status. Many portraits during the Elizabethan era also depicted servants with a dark complexion in the background, to contrast the "lightness" of the main subject with a fairer complexion. ==Notes==