Vermilion flycatcher

The tyrant flycatcher family, Tyrannidae, is a group of passerine birds present only in the Americas; its members are generally drab in coloration. Within it, the subfamily Fluvicolinae comprises the genera Pyrocephalus, Contopus, Empidonax, and Sayornis. They likely share a common ancestor that belonged to the genus Contopus or Xenotriccus and later diversified. The Pyrocephalus are most closely related to Sayornis in terms of morphology, but genetic analysis shows they may be more closely related to Fluvicola. A 2016 molecular study changed the taxonomy of the species, splitting off several new species and re-designated the original bird as Pyrocephalus obscurus. Before the study it was considered a monotypic genus, but now taxonomists (including the International Ornithologists' Union) have elevated three of the vermilion flycatcher subspecies to the rank of species: the Darwin's, San Cristóbal, and scarlet flycatchers. or "flame headed". The specific epithet obscurus is Latin and means "dark" or "dusky". The vermilion flycatcher likely evolved around 1.15million years ago (mya), the species on the Galápagos Islands having split off around 0.82mya. The South American subspecies had coalesced by about 0.56mya, and the North American subspecies had diverged from the South American by 0.25mya. There are nine widely recognized subspecies, which differ primarily in the color and saturation of the male's plumage and the color and amount of streaking of the female's. The geographic boundaries between some subspecies are not well defined: • P. o. obscurus (Gould, 1839)—The nominate race, which is found in the Lima region of western Peru. • P. o. mexicanus (Sclater, 1859)—Found from southern Texas in the United States south to central and southern Mexico. Its upperparts are the blackest of any race, and the male lacks any mottling on the red parts. This subspecies is named after Mexico. • P. o. saturatus (von Berlepsch and Hartert, 1902)—Found in northeastern Colombia, western and northern Venezuela, Guyana and northern Brazil. The female has pink underparts. Saturatus means "richly colored" in Latin. • P. o. blatteus (Bangs in 1911)—Found in southeastern Mexico, Belize and northern Guatemala. The upperparts are paler, and the underparts more red compared to the nominate race, lacking an orange tinge. It is also smaller than the other Mexican races. Blatteus means "purple colored" in Latin. • P. o. flammeus (van Rossem, 1934)—Found in the southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico. The upperparts are paler and slightly gray, and the underparts are more orange colored than the nominate race. Males may also have orange mottling in the crown and breast, whereas the females are less streaky. Flammeus means "flame colored" in Latin. • P. o. ardens (Zimmer, 1941)—Found in northern Peru, in extreme eastern Piura, Cajamarca, and Amazonas. Their coloration has been described as "fiery red". The front of the females crown is slightly pink. Ardens means "burning" in Latin. • P. o. cocachacrae (Zimmer, 1941)—Found from southwestern Peru south to extreme northern Chile. The male has a browner mantle and less red underparts, while the female has less white underparts, compared to the nominate race. The type locality is the Cocachacra District in Peru. • P. o. piurae (Zimmer, 1941)—Found from western Colombia south to northwestern Peru, it is named for the Piura province in Peru. • P. o. pinicola (Howell, 1965)—Found in eastern Honduras and northeastern Nicaragua. It is smaller than P. o. blatteus, and the females have more orange underparts. It prefers pine savanna habitats, which is reflected in the name Pinicola: it roughly translates to "pine tree dweller" from Latin. ==Description==

The vermilion flycatcher is a small bird, measuring from tip to tail, around from wingtip to body, with a mass between . It is strongly dimorphic. Males are bright red, with contrasting dark brown plumage. Females are drab and have a peach-colored belly with a dark gray upperside. The reddish color varies but can be vermilion, scarlet, or orangish. In males, the crown, chest, and underparts are red. The lores (region in front of the eyes), nape, ear coverts, wings, upperparts, and tail are all brown to blackish brown. The female has a grayish crown, as well as grayish ear coverts, wings, and tail. The flight feathers and wing coverts are slightly paler gray, which create a barring effect. The supercilium (eyebrow) is whiter. The underparts start white but become light red moving downward. Juveniles of both sexes look similar to adult females; juvenile males have much brighter red underparts, whereas juvenile females have yellowish underparts. Plumage appears constant throughout the year for both adult sexes and for juveniles. They have a slight crest, which can be raised when needed. Males are not easily mistaken for other species, but the drab females may be confused with the Say's phoebe. s|left Vocalizations Ornithologist David Sibley describes the perching song as a pit pit pit pidddrrrreedrr, whereas the Cornell Lab of Ornithology describes it as a ching-tink-a-le-tink, with an emphasis on the last syllable. Females do not usually sing. Urban noise pollution appears to affect songs; a population in Mexico City was found to sing louder and longer songs as ambient noise increased. Singing is not heard year-round; populations in Arizona and Texas sing only from late February through July. Non-vocal sounds include snapping the beak, by males between songs and by females while watching male courtship flights. Their wings may also be used to create a whirring noise while perch hopping or during territorial displays, though this is practiced infrequently. ==Distribution and habitat==

in Arizona Their range includes almost all of Mexico, extending north into the southwestern United States, and south to scattered portions of Central America, and parts of northwestern and central South America. It has ranged as far north as Canada. North American populations are generally resident, migrating only at the edge of the range. South American populations, especially those further south, may make long migrations to the northernmost parts of the Brazilian Amazon. This reflects a tendency to overwinter in areas where the temperature does not go below . Migrations may extend up to . North American populations generally migrate by late August and return between February and April. Their ability to migrate likely aided their wide colonization of the Americas. Vermilion flycatchers prefer somewhat open areas and are found in trees or shrubs in savanna, scrub, agricultural areas, riparian woodlands, and desert as well, but usually near water. They range up to elevations of . A study in Arizona found that their preferred breeding range included cottonwood or mesquite tree canopies, although Fremont cottonwoods were not favored. Goodding's willow was preferred as a nesting site where found. Understory plants mainly consisted of invasive Cynodon dactylon grass. ==Behavior==

Vermilion flycatchers are generally solitary, though they may form small flocks of not more than five individuals during winter. They spend most of their time in trees perching, landing on the ground only rarely to catch insects. They do not generally hop, preferring to fly to get around, and glide only infrequently. Nestlings open their eyes four days after hatching. The young are ready to leave the nest 15 days after hatching. All young generally fledge on the same day, although some may leave a day earlier. If the nest is disturbed, nestlings older than 11 days will abandon the nest prematurely. There are usually two broods per year, although three are possible. These are usually taken in mid-air, after a short sally flight from a perch. While waiting for insects, they will sit on thin branches and pump their tail up and down. Avian pox viruses and crop canker (caused by Trichomanes gallinae) may have directly contributed to the extinction of the Galapagos sister species. ==Relationship to humans==

The vermilion flycatcher is a favorite with birders, but it is not generally kept in aviculture as the males tend to lose their vermilion coloration when in captivity. This is likely a diet-based effect, as maintaining bright red coloration in birds requires substantial quantities of yellow precursor zeaxanthin molecules which are then metabolized into red pigment. This acts as an indicator of genetic fitness to potential mates, as a bright male is using his diet-based coloration to show off his ability to survive and catch food. The Tucson Bird Alliance (formerly Tucson Audubon Society) of Tucson, Arizona, publishes an eponymous journal named for the Vermilion Flycatcher. ==Status==

Because of its enormous range and sizable population—with a population estimated ranging between 5,000,000 and 50,000,000 individuals—the vermilion flycatcher is listed as a species of least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. The Darwin's flycatcher, which was also once part of the species, is considered a near-threatened species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. ==References==