Wandering salamander

The wandering salamander is a long, slender salamander that grows to a snout-vent length of approximately and a total length of . Its base color ranges from brown to light grey, with lighter bronze-grey mottling distributed across its dorsal surface. Juveniles also have a coppery-bronze stripe down the spine. The species has between 14 and 16 costal grooves, though 15 is most common. The species has adaptions conducive to an arboreal lifestyle, with relatively long legs and toes that have expanded terminal pads with square cut ends to aid in both vertical climbing and gliding. The tail is prehensile, round in cross section, and helps the salamander direct its descent when falling. The wandering salamander is similar in appearance to the clouded salamander (Aneides ferreus) and they were at one time considered to be the same species. ==Taxonomy==

The wandering salamander and the clouded salamander were considered the same species until 1998. Prior to splitting, the clouded salamander's range extended from northern California to Oregon, with an adjunct population on Vancouver Island. However, an examination of the mitochondrial DNA and allozymes of populations from various parts of the species' range determined that individuals from California and Vancouver Island were genetically similar to one another and distinct from the populations found in Oregon. The species found in California and Vancouver Island was subsequently dubbed Aneides vagrans, the wandering salamander, while the species found in Oregon retained the name Aneides ferreus. ==Distribution==

In California, the wandering salamander's range extends from northern Siskiyou and Del Norte Counties, south along the coast through northwestern Sonoma County. The species is widespread in low elevation forests across Vancouver Island and its surrounding islands. The cause of the disjunct distribution of A. vagrans is not certain. There are many theories as to why the species has such an unusual range, but none have been directly studied and therefore remain merely speculative. It has been postulated that A. vagrans was introduced to Vancouver Island in the nineteenth century via large sheets of tanoak bark imported from California for the tanning industry, and subsequently spread to nearly all the surrounding islets on floating logs. Prior being split from A. ferreus, it was hypothesized that the wandering salamander's disjunct distribution was the result of glaciation, with the species' once continuous population becoming fragmented by glaciers but persisting in refugia in California and Vancouver Island. However, population fragmentation typically leads to genetic divergence over time, which would make the very close genetic similarity of the California and Vancouver populations somewhat surprising given how much time has passed since the last glacial period. ==Habitat==

The species occurs from sea level to . They are more likely to be found within bark on a log than under loose bark on the ground. Individuals may climb up to in the branches of trees, and have been found living in the crowns of coast redwoods. Although research on arboreal microhabitat selection in this species has been minimal, they appear to associate with epiphytic fern mats in the crotches of redwood branches. ==Life History==

Reproduction Breeding takes place in spring and early summer, during which the female lays a clutch of 6-9 eggs in a concealed location. Adult salamanders have been found guarding eggs as they develop. ==Behavior==

Gliding Wandering salamanders may leap from trees when disturbed, and have several adaptations that allow them to manipulate their descent. Wind tunnel experiments have found that wandering salamanders can control their pitch, roll, and yaw when in the air such that their body remains upright and stable in a "skydiving" posture that reduces descent speed. This posture generally involves spread legs and splayed feet, with the tail angled upwards. Parasagittal undulations of the tail and torso allow wandering salamanders to glide in a controlled manner similar to arboreal squamates. When filled with fluid, these cavities may also serve as shock-absorbers, softening the salamander's fall after jumping from a tree. Like many other species of arboreal salamanders and squamates, wandering salamanders also have curved toes, though it is unclear whether this toe shape actually improves grip strength. However, rough-skinned newts secrete toxins from their skin, which may explain avoidance in this case. Aggressive encounters between wandering salamanders are also much less frequent compared to other similar species. Behaviors that are considered threat displays in other plethodontid salamanders, such as raised bodies, looking at opponents, long bites, and jaw snapping, are either rare or not correlated with aggressive behavior in Vancouver Island wandering salamanders. ==Status==

The wandering salamander is listed as Least Concern in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, though populations are declining. ==References==