Europe Early examples of sword and spear dances can be found amongst the Germanic tribes of Northern Europe, such as those mentioned by
Tacitus, the
Norse peoples and the
Anglo-Saxon tribes.
Sutton Hoo is thought to show figures dancing with spears. Other references to such traditions include that in
Constantine VII Porphrogenitus’ Book of Ceremonies (from c. 953) which describes the
Varangian Guard (a group made up of
Norsemen and later English and Anglo-Danish warriors) dancing in two circles, with some wearing skins or masks, along with chants of “Toúl!” and clashing staves on shields.
Sword dances exist in some parts of Europe. The weapon may be used to act out mock combat during the dance, or may be incorporated as an element of the dance, intertwining with other swords. In some places, sticks are used instead of swords. Iberian stick dances (
paulitos,
paloteos,
ball de bastons) display two opposite rows of dancers. A common sword dance in Europe is the
moresca in Spain, in which the dance recalls the
Reconquista from the 12th to 15th centuries. The gun parade of the
Moros y cristianos also celebrates these battles, as does the British
morris dance. In
North Macedonia and Northern Italy, weapon dances may be used to exorcise evil spirits before a wedding. Sabre dancing exists in the Balkans; the most famous is
Albanian, where two male rivals simulate a duel over a woman. The
Galician
jogo do pau involves two rivals with long sticks. Other weapons, such as axes (or wooden versions thereof) may be used in some places. Lance dances, dagger dances, and even rifle dances are in parts of Europe. Historically, the Hungarian
heyduck dance was a soldiers' dance that involved virtuoso whirling of weapons and free-form compositions with battle practice motifs. Such dances also appear in
Gypsy,
Slovak,
Ruthenian, and
Transylvanian folklore. In many of these areas, the so-called "stick dancing" of shepherds is a reenactment of combat with real weapons. In a few isolated sections of Europe, a rather savage male combat dance survives. In the villages of the
Transylvania Alps and
Carpathian mountains, before
Twelfth Night and
Whitsunday, nine men from nine villages assemble for the
Joc de căluşari or
căluş, a rite of initiation. The men engage in fierce battle with sticks, which used to be bloody and sometimes fatal.
Basque dances ,
Basque Country. Some of the
Basque dances feature weapons. The
ezpatadantza ("sword dance") comes from
Durango, Spain in the
Basque Country and is danced for authorities and in the
Feast of Corpus Christi. After the dance, both opposing rows of dancers raise their weapons and form a corridor for the authorities. The
ezpatadantza and the
makildantza ("stick dance") employ
makila (traditional walking sticks), and end with the dancers raising one of them, lying as a fallen warrior, over their heads. In the Basque Country the
Okrabario Dantza is performed in
Legazpi, Gipuzkoa. It is a sword dance in which a participant dances atop a grid of crossed swords held aloft. In
Tolosa during the day on
Midsummer, the
Bordon-Dantza ("
makila dance") is performed with the figures of the
ezpatadantza; some point its origins to the border fights in the Middle Ages, when the
Castilian troops from Gipuzkoa won an important victory over the troops from
Navarre at the Battle of
Beotibar. Sticks simulate some weapons, and
halberds—a combination of a spear and a battle-axe—are also used.
Asia Baris is a traditional dance of
Bali, in which a solo dancer depicts the feelings of a young warrior prior to battle. Originally, Baris was performed as a religious ritual. The dancer may bear a
kris, a spear, a bow, or other weapons, depending on the variant performed. The word "Baris" literally means "line" or "file", and referred to the line of soldiers who served the
rajas of Bali. The dance is usually performed by men in a group with as few as four dancers and as many as sixty. The ritualistic function of the dance is to show physical maturity by demonstrating military skills, particularly the use of weapons. In China, dances with weapon have been recorded for a long time. The founder of the Han dynasty
Liu Bang was said to be fond of the war dance of the
Ba people. Large-scale performances of the dance involved the brandishing of various weapons to the accompaniment of drums and songs in the Ba language. It remained popular through the Tang dynasty and spread as far as Central Asia. The development of art dance, in general, in
China reached its peak during the
Tang dynasty and then was largely integrated into
Chinese Opera practice. Tribal weapon dancing may also be present among the original aboriginal tribes on
Taiwan (The Republic of China). The
Shaolin martial arts employ weapons in ways that are sometimes enjoyed for aesthetic reasons, however, similar to a dance. Shaolin spear, Yezhan spear, Lanmen spear, and sword and stick exercises may be included.
Tai chi also incorporates sword practise in a similar way. The
Dayak people of
Borneo are renowned for their solo sword dances, which show the skill of a young man using a sharp
mandau. Also, on the island of Borneo one finds the
Lotud, an
indigenous ethnic group residing in
Sabah. The Lotud are well known for their very colourful costumes and their dances, one of which is the
Bakanjar, a war-like dance with a man holding a sword and a shield, originally performed to portray the sword fight and heroic exploits of the headhunting days. In the
Indian subcontinent, the sword dance Choliya or Saraon of the
Kumaon region of the hills of the Indian state of
Uttarakhand started partly due to their long martial tradition and also to give protection to marriage processions. It was also held auspicious and, according to Hindu tradition, warded off evil spirits. It has a very beautiful and graceful form and has techniques which give it the status of a martial art. Among the traditional weapon dances of
India is the
Shad Sukmynsiem, performed in the north-eastern state of
Meghalaya. Both Christians and Hindus may take part as long as they belong to Khasi community. Young lads clad in colourful silk dhotis dance around with a sword or spear in one hand and a plume in the other. The move in a protective circle around an inner circle of young maidens. A popular dance in
Mizoram in the north-east corner of India is
Sawlakin, a word that "means spirit of the slain." Traditionally, the dance was led by the warrior who had hunted a big game or killed a man. He would wear his best clothes and a plume of red feather. He would wield a gun or
dao and a shield. He would be followed by other dancers in a row, who would also carry weapons, or cymbals or gongs. The
Pashtuns of Afghanistan practice a wide range of weapon dances, including the
Khattak Wal Atanrh (named after the Khattak tribe) and the
Mahsood Wal Atanrh (which, in modern times, involves the juggling of loaded rifles). A sub-type of the
Khattak Wal Atanrh known as the
Braghoni involves the use of up to three swords and requires great skill to successfully execute.
Middle East and Asia Minor There are a number of Arab weapon dances, including the
razfah. It was originally practiced at Manga in
Muscat, prior to going out on a raid; the object of the dance was to "warm up" for the combat to come. Also, on the Arabian Peninsula a dance named
Ardah recalls pre-Islamic tribal battles. Two rows of men face one another, clapping, singing, and dancing in a lively manner, accompanied by large frame drums. At the peak of the dance two swordsmen perform a duel between the rows of dancers. The
Assyrian minority in
Syria have a dramatic folk dance called Shora, which commemorates the bloody battles fought by the Ancient Assyrians back in their time consisting of a leader (usually a man) in front with a sword otherwise known as a
saypa and a line of men joining. Generally speaking, a number of dances (known as razfah or
yowlah) of
Bedouin origin use weapons and have achieved modern popularity in the
Arab states of the Persian Gulf and are associated with festive occasions among the non-Bedouin sedentary population. In Iran there exists the
Çûb-Bâzî ("stick game"; or
raqs-e çûb, "stick dance"), a dance form that probably has its origins in reenactments of combat. Essentially, an attacker and a defender duel with poles. The
çûb-bâzî is “…both a dance and a show of skill and bravery; participants are judged by their abilities in the combat aspects, as well as by their grace in executing the dance movements.”
Africa In South Africa, such dances as the Zulu
Indlamu, the traditional dance most often associated with Zulu culture, is performed with drums and full traditional attire and is derived from the war dances of the warriors. Also, the military influence of the warrior King
Shaka is reflected in demonstrations of stick fighting (umshiza) with which the male teenagers and men settle their personal differences in a public duel. The
Jerusema (or
Mbenede) dance of the Zezuru people in
Zimbabwe is an interesting kind of hybrid war dance—"hybrid" in the sense that music and dance formed a part of the actual battle-field preparations, themselves, as well as of the ritual dance recalling the battle. (The Zezuru are one of the
Shona peoples who were the builders of the great monuments of the
Monomotapa kingdom in Zimbabwe between the 10th and 15th centuries.) The dance is a re-creation of a battle strategy developed by the Zezuru in the 19th century against incursions of other tribes in the wake of colonialist expansion of the
Boers. The dance, itself, recalls the music and dance used as a diversionary tactic on the battlefield to distract the enemy while Zezuru warriors maneuvered into position; thus, the ritual dance involves the music and dance of the “distractors” as well as warriors with weapons moving into position.
Ethiopia has a long, historical reputation as a place where the weapon dance plays an important cultural role. According to
Lucian, a Greek writer from the 2nd century, “The Ethiopians dance also during the battle. The Ethiopian never shoots his arrow without dancing and making a menacing gesture beforehand. He wants to frighten the enemy by his dance beforehand.” The broad range of weapon dances includes the
hota jumping dance of
Amharic males; the attack dance of the Hailefo; the stick-dance of the Kullo; the
Beroronsi Hama Haban, a dramatic dagger dance of the Esa; and the
shire, the saber dance of the
Tigrean nomadic shepherds.
Australia, New Zealand and Polynesia In
Australia, there are
aboriginal dances that reenact hunting and combat using traditional weapons such as the
boomerang. Sometimes two boomerangs are clapped together as a musical instrument to provide sounds for dances. In
New Zealand,
Maori have raised the
martial art associated with the
taiaha and
mere to the level of a weapon dance. The
haka could also be considered as a weapon dance, as it includes elements of warlike challenge to chanting and musical (sung) accompaniment. The
Nifo oti, or
Samoan fire knife dance, is also a kind of weapon dance. The
kailao is a standing male war dance of
Tonga. The
kailao is performed by men (less commonly women also perform it with the men as a mixed dance), who carry clubs or fighting sticks. The performers dance in a fierce manner to emulate combat, all to the accompaniment of a slit drum or a tin box. Additional
idiophonic percussion is provided by strung
rattles worn on the anklets of the dancers, and the clashing together of the wooden implements of war, which today are either sticks or mock weapons. The dance is unusual for Tonga in that it lacks recited poetry as accompaniment, which fact is taken to mean that it was imported to Tonga from elsewhere.
North and Central America So-called “war dances” of indigenous North American tribes may also be classified as weapon dances. Recent interest in preserving Native American traditions has led to such groups as The Warriors of AniKituhwa, a
Cherokee dance group who recreate Cherokee dances, including the war dance, do research and offer dance workshops for their community. A dance such as the
Comanche Sun Dance of the 1870s was an invocation of invulnerability to the White Man's bullets; the dance was a preliminary ritual to battle and would be a war dance and, hence, a weapon dance. In
Bermuda, an insular North Atlantic colony included within
British North America, indigenous North American war dance and costume were combined with elements drawn from Afro-Caribbean and British military culture by
Gombey dance troupes, armed with tomahawks and bows. Also, the
moresca (or
morisca) (
above) exists in some areas in the Americas that used to be Spanish colonies—Mexico, for example. In the
Jamiltepec region of
Mexico, there exists perhaps the most colorful version of that kind of dance, the Chareos dance. It represents a battle between
Moors, led by
Pilate, and Christians, led by
James, the apostle. Sixteen male dancers take part and the dancer who plays the part of James appears as a horse rider and wears a costume that incorporates a white horse. The dancers wear ostrich feathers on their heads, a peacock feather at the front, white cotton square over their shoulders, velvet trousers decorated with gold brocade over white cotton pants and carry a machete. In addition, the leader has a hat with a small mirror and a white feather headdress. Two men at the front carry two red flags and two white flags, red symbolizing the blood spilt by James' soldiers and
white symbolizing the peace that reigned after the Christian victory. The sounds of drums and flutes accompany the dance. These dances that pit Christian against Moor are almost certainly Christianized versions of earlier, pre-
Cortez dances that ritualized the battle between the tiger and the eagle. Similar to the Moor-Christian confrontation of the
morisca—whether in Spain or in transplanted versions in Central America—there are also elaborate ritual dances in Mexico such as the
Danza de la Pluma that exploit the trauma of the
Spanish conquest of indigenous America. Weapons employed may be swords (and shields) whips, even firearms. These representations take place over a large area of Mesoamerica and, in part, are an obvious adaptation of Spanish tradition, but in Mexico will pit the native Aztec against the Spanish invader. The most interesting aspect of these dances is that—depending on where one sees them and under what conditions—it is plausible to read into the dances an outcome other than the historical Spanish victory. That is, indigenous performers may take inspiration from the fact that the natives of Spain drove out the Moorish invaders; thus, the natives of Mesoamerica, too, shall one day drive out the invaders. Some dances that abound at Carnival and
Corpus Christi fiestas go back to pre-Conquest ritual combat dances of the
Aztecs. For example, during the 15th month of the
Aztec calendar,
Huitzilopochtli, god of the sun and war was honored by real duels between slave victims and mimed battles among masked boy votaries.
South America , 1825, published 1835 The landscape of all dance in a large country such as Brazil is rich and complex due to the mixing of three separate traditions—Indian native, Black African, and Portuguese. In
Brazil, the African influence on Brazilian folkdances is considerable. For example,
capoeira—a dance-like fighting style—and the
maculelê fighting dance are strongly reminiscent of African dances. Capoeira is of particular interest. In the 19th century, Capoeira was played mostly by African slaves who had been brought from West Central Africa, making them the original capoeiristas and making the art a complex form of social interaction, expressing the participants' physical skills and spiritual essence, involving the gods and the spirits of the ancestral fathers. The participants played during festivals and holidays, jumping and leaping in front of musical bands, military troops, and religious processions. This dance “game” was considered dangerous to public order and was eventually criminalized in the late 19th century. Today,
capoeira has staged somewhat of a comeback and is even studied in dance academies as part of a general movement to rejuvenate folk traditions. Capoeira may be played unarmed or with blades held in the hands or feet. The sticks used as mock weapons in some of these dances also serve as percussion instruments. In the southern state of
Rio Grande do Sul, the
machete, a tool used to cut jungle brush, is used in a dance called
dança dos facões (dance of the machetes). In this dance (historically performed only by men, although this trend changes as the dance spreads), the dancers knock their machetes while dancing, simulating a battle. Machete are sometimes used in place of sticks in maculelê. ==Weapon dance as art==