Traditional classification The Atlantic family was first identified by
Sigismund Koelle in 1854. In the early 20th century,
Carl Meinhof claimed that Fula was a
Hamitic language, but August von Klingenhaben and
Joseph Greenberg's work established Fula's close relationship with Wolof and Serer. W. A. A. Wilson notes that the validity of the family as a whole rests on much weaker evidence, though it is clear that the languages are part of the
Niger–Congo family, based on evidence such as a shared noun-class system. However,
comparative work on Niger–Congo is in its infancy. Classifications of Niger–Congo, usually based on
lexicostatistics, generally propose that the various Atlantic languages are rather divergent, but less so than
Mande and other languages that lack noun classes.
David Sapir (1971) proposed a classification of Atlantic into three branches, a northern group, a southern group, and the divergent
Bijago language of the
Bissagos Islands off the coast of
Guinea-Bissau: •
Atlantic •
Northern • Sénégal languages:
Fula–
Serer;
Wolof •
Cangin languages •
Bak languages (not including
Bijago) • Eastern Sénégal–Portuguese Guinea languages •
Tenda languages •
Biafada–
Pajade •
Kobiana–
Kasanga–
Banhum •
Nalu–
Mbulungish–
Baga Mboteni •
Bijago • Southern •
Sua •
Mel languages (including Gola) •
Limba Sapir's classification is widely cited in handbooks on African linguistics (e.g. Bender 1989, Williamson & Blench 2000), and is also used in the
Ethnologue (22nd ed., 2019).
Recent proposals The unity of the Atlantic languages—as traditionally defined—has long been questioned, e.g. Dalby (1965), who argued for the Mel languages as a primary branch of Niger–Congo. At the current state of research, the wide concept of Atlantic (i.e. including the Southern languages) within the Niger–Congo family is no longer held up. Segerer (2010, 2016) and Pozdniakov & Segerer (2017) propose a
narrowed-down version of the Atlantic languages by excluding all languages of the southern branch, which they treat as four primary branches (viz. Sua, Limba, Gola, and the Mel languages) within the Niger–Congo family. The Bak languages are split from the northern languages as a coordinate subbranch within Atlantic (in the narrow sense). Bijago is assigned to the Bak languages. Güldemann (2018) goes even further, and also treats
Nalu and
Mbulungish–
Baga Mboteni ("
Rio Nunez") as unclassified first-order branches of Niger–Congo.
Vossen & Dimmendaal (2020) Revised classification of the Atlantic languages (Vossen & Dimmendaal 2020:166, from Pozdniakov & Segerer): •
Atlantic • North • Wolof: Wolof, Lebu • Nyun-Buy • Nyun (Gunyaamolo, Gujaher, Gubëeher, etc.) • Buy (Kasanga, Kobiana) • Tenda-Jaad • Tenda: Basari, Tanda, Bedik, Bapen; Konyagi • Jaad: Biafada; Badiaranke • Fula-Sereer • Fula (Pular, Pulaar, Fulfulde, etc.) • Sereer • Cangin • Palor, Ndut • Noon, Laala, Saafi • Nalu • Nalu • Bage Fore • Baga Mboteni • Bak • Balant: Ganja, Kentohe, Fraase • Joola-Manjaku • Joola: Fogny, Banjal, Kasa, Kwaatay, Karon, Ejamat, Keeraak, etc.; Bayot ? • Manjaku • Bok, Cur, Bassarel • Pepel • Mankanya • Bijogo: Kamona, Kagbaaga, Kajoko
Merrill (2021) Merrill (2021) proposes that Atlantic (or North Atlantic) is not a valid subgroup of Niger-Congo, but rather considers each of the established Atlantic "branches" to all be primary branches of Niger-Congo. Furthermore, Merrill suggests that due to the divergence of the Atlantic languages, the homeland of Niger-Congo may lie in the northwest of sub-Saharan Africa. •
North Atlantic geographical area • Fula-Sereer (branch) • Fula • Sereer • Cangin • Wolof • Bainunk-Kobiana-Kasanga (branch) • Kobiana • Gujaher • Gubëeher • Guñaamolo • Biafada-Pajade (branch) • Pajade • Biafada • Tenda (branch) • Konyagi • Bassari • Bedik • Bak (branch) • Joola • Manjak • Balanta • Bijogo (branch) Merrill (2021) also notes that Tenda and Biafada-Pajade share similarities with each other, and may possibly form a
linkage. ==Reconstruction==