White War

The front line At the outbreak of the war, the border between Italy and Austria-Hungary was as determined at the Treaty of Vienna (1866) at the conclusion of the Third Italian War of Independence. One section along this border, the Trentino, offered major advantages to Austria-Hungary. Extending southwards towards the River Po, it potentially allowed Austro-Hungarian forces to strike towards the lower Adige and Mincio, cutting off Veneto and Friuli-Venezia from the rest of Italy. Another section, much smaller, favoured Italy around the Kreuzberg Pass and the headwaters of the Drava. In practical terms however, the road and rail systems did not allow the Italian commander Luigi Cadorna to mass his forces here, so instead he concentrated on the Isonzo front further east, where he hoped to make a decisive breakthrough. Between Switzerland and Lake Garda the Ortler, and the Adamello-Presanella Alps controlled the Stelvio Pass and the Tonale Pass. From here the Austro-Hungarians could have broken through to threaten the industrial cities of Lombardy, while the Italians could have penetrated deep into the Tyrol. In fact, neither side developed major plans for this sector; once the passes were closed, both sides maintained a static posture. Logistical challenges The major challenge for both armies was to sustain modern warfare in such a hostile environment. The difficult terrain meant supplies had to be brought up on the backs of pack animals or of the men themselves, including heavy artillery and munitions. As the conflict developed a network of roads, mule tracks and pathways was established, reaching even the most remote places. Eventually, cableways were built too, and this building work itself was difficult, dangerous and exhausting. This made it extremely difficult for the troops to stay at high altitudes, forcing the men to continually dig and clear the snow because of the risk of avalanches. ==Military forces==

Kingdom of Italy On the western edge of the front, deployed from the Stelvio Pass to the Cereda Pass, Italy positioned the 1st Army under General Roberto Brusati based in Verona, spread over an arc roughly 200 km long as the crow flies or about 300 km on the ground. The III and V Corps were deployed under the command of Generals Camerana and Aliprindi, and mixed with the troops of the fortress of Verona, under the command of General Gobbo. The III Corps occupied the western side of the Trentino salient, from Stelvio to Lake Garda. The 6th Division was deployed on the border while the 5th was the reserve of the III Corps. To the south, between Garda and the Lessinico plateau, were the troops of the fortress of Verona, while the V Corps with the 9th, 34th and 15th divisions was positioned at the and the Cereda Pass, defending the Trentino salient with the 35th Reserve Division near Brescia. Balance of forces Despite their numerical superiority, the Italian forces did not take the offensive on this front. The Italian commanders lacked intelligence about the strength of Austro-Hungarian numbers, had no detailed plans for a campaign and were also risk-averse. The Austro-Hungarians were equally unprepared to take the offensive. In the decades before the war resources had been directed mainly to Galicia on the Russian front, and in 1915 the objective was simply to hold off any Italian invasion. As chief of staff, Conrad had also neglected the defence of the Dolomites in favor of a strengthening his position on the Asiago plateau, as a base from which to attack the Veneto. As a result, the defences that opposed the Italian 4th Army were second-rate compared to those of Trentino. In the first days of the war, instead of trying to maintain old strongholds Commander Goiginger had his men retreat and distributed the artillery around the surrounding mountains. By spreading their guns over isolated positions on the slopes and peaks, the Austrians exploited the Dolomite terrain very effectively, securing every possible advantage in an attempt to confine the Italians to the lower valleys and prevent them from accessing the strategic passes. Fortifications The peacetime defence doctrine of Austria-Hungary assumed that not an inch of land was to be conceded to an invader, and on this basis fortifications had been built up right on the border itself. However at the beginning of the hostilities the Austrians did not have sufficient forces to be able to maintain them. They therefore withdrew to defensive positions behind the border that gave them the advantage of high ground wherever possible and shortened their defensive lines from around 500 km to about 400 km. In contrast the Italians followed the practice of locating their fortifications well behind the border, meaning they had no role in the fighting in the Dolomites. An Austrian advance near Agordo would have been met at the fort of Listolade, while the Cadore was defended by the Chiusa di Venàs and the fort of Monte Rite, as well as by numerous concealed artillery positions. On the Austrian side, Ampezzo and the Cadore Dolomites area were defended by the Prato Piazza (Plätzwiese) and Landro, which had been complemented with modern structures in the surrounding area (Col Rosson, Alpe di Specie, Col di Specie, Rautkofel). The forts of Haideck and Mitterberg (monte di Mezzo) in val di Sesto were intended to prevent any descent from the Monte Croce di Comelico pass towards Val Pusteria but they had not been modernised. To make up for this, Mount Dentro di Sesto was used as a fixed location for large calibre artillery. in 1916, half-destroyed by Italian artillery The pass between the Ampezzo basin and the Val Badia was controlled by Forte Tre Sassi on the stony ground of the Valparola Pass, while the Livinallongo del Col di Lana was blocked upstream of Pieve by and . Finally, near Moena stood , guarding the Fassa Valley and the mouth of the San Pellegrino valley, a few kilometres from the front. All these forts were of modest size, much less impressive than the large fortresses on the Trentino highlands and in the Adige valley. At the beginning of the war they were partially decommissioned because they were outdated and inadequate to resist modern artillery. Their guns were moved to more favourable positions less detectable by the enemy; the buildings were highly visible and at times the Austro-Hungarians continued to pretend that they were occupied in order to divert Italian fire towards useless targets. Both armies, from the beginning of the conflict, began the constant work of excavating caves, tunnels, trenches, walkways, shelters and underground depots, which led to the creation of entire underground towns relatively safe from enemy fire. Monte Piana and Col di Lana were notable examples of such structures, with impressive defensive systems. Other examples can be found at the Sass de Stria with its tunnels and trenches, and Lagazuoi, more excavated than any other mountain in the Dolomites; within it, a bloody battle was fought with mines. ==The Dolomites sector==

Conca d'Ampezzo and Som Pouses The war reached Cortina d'Ampezzo on July 31, 1914 with the conscription of men between 21 and 42 into the armed forces of Austria-Hungary. In November of the same year twenty-year-olds were also called up, and in May 1915, when Italy also entered the conflict, the draft was extended to men aged up to 50. Ladin speakers, Italian speakers from Trentino and German speakers from Tyrol were grouped into three regiments of Landesschützen and four of Kaiserjäger, hurriedly transferred to the Eastern Front. In early August 1915 the Italians began attacking the Austro-Hungarian positions in the heights. Between 9 and 11 August Alpini units, strongly opposed by artillery and machine gun fire, began the assault on Forame and managed to take it on the night of 13th. Another column took the high peak of Cristallo, forcing the Austro-Hungarians back to Cresta del Costabella and Rauchkofel. After bringing artillery up onto the peak the Italians began to bombard these positions on 26 August. This was followed by another attack in from 11–26 September, but hampered by fog, snow and freezing temperatures, the Italians could not force the Austro-Hungarians off the mountain once and for all, and little ground changed hands. Another costly Italian attack between 20 and 26 October saw a group of volunteers try to outmanoeuvre the Austro-Hungarians by climbing over the glacier in camouflage, but they were detected and repulsed after several days of determined fighting. Between 4 and 6 September the Italians tried to push their way down the valley between Forame and Costa Bella, but constant Austrian fire stopped them advancing. Then, in a surprise counterattack in 13 September, the Austro-Hungarians retook the peak of Forame, and quickly hoisted up artillery and mortars to ensure they could not be removed again. On the 15th of June, furious fighting took place for the 2,477m spike-like Sasso di Stria which had been fortified by the Austro-Hungarians. Col di Lana The Col di Lana is one of the least striking mountains in the Dolomites in its appearance, but its location meant it was hotly disputed by the two armies. The mountain dominated all road traffic moving between the Pordoi Pass and the Falzarego Pass, connecting Cortina d’Ampezzo with Canazei and the tens to the west. It was protected to the west by and on the northern side, at the foot of Mount Lagazuoi, by Forte Tre Sassi. From then on, both sides worked intensively to reinforce their positions and protect themselves from the elements and enemy artillery. The Austrians established their central supply point under the tongue of the glacier on the Gran Poz at 2300 meters, at the uppermost point of the cableway, and from there porters took supplies to the positions at "Forcella della Marmolada" , "3259", "Twelve", "Eleven", "2800" and "slot S". The conflict proceeded as a work of mining and countermining through rock and ice. The Austrians managed to create a large enough hole from which they could direct artillery fire towards the Italians. But the Italians, after learning that they were under fire, accelerated the countermining work, and thanks to the help of drilling machines in a short time they managed to reach under the enemy positions, which were blown up in several points, eliminating the danger of artillery attack. The Italians could bring much greater numbers and more regular supplies to the Marmolada, so the Austro-Hungarians were on the defensive, digging more and more shelters in the ice and rock in order to hold their positions. Other than mining and countermining, and artillery and grenade attacks there was no movement on this front until the Italians abandoned their positions after Caporetto. ==The Adamello-Presanella sector==

The first action in this sector was a surprise Italian attack on 9 June 1915 by the ""Morbegno battalion" on the Presena glacier at the north end of the Adamello: however they were detected and forced back by sniper fire. On 5 July the Austro-Hungarians responded with a surprise attack on the Italian garrison of Lago di Campo at the southern end. Despite heavy losses the Italians managed to repel the attack, forcing their opponents to retreat to their starting positions. On July 15 the Austrians pressed a new attack on the Giuseppe Garibaldi refuge but the defenders managed, once again, to resist. On 25 August the Italians renewed their attack in the north; this time the Alpini attacked the creste di Monticelli at night and surprised the Austro-Hungarians; once they had the ridge, fortification works began immediately. However further Italian attacks on the Presena glacier on 14 September and on 30 October failed before winter set in and fighting became impossible. The following spring hostilities resumed on 12 April, when the Alpini at the Giuseppe Garibaldi refuge successfully attacked the Austrian defensive line between Lobbia Alta and Monte Fumo. A further attack was launched between 29 and 30 April, towards the Cavento Pass. For the first time in this area, heavy artillery was used to support the infantry. Despite the lack of winter camouflage that forced them to fight in grey-green uniforms, the Italians managed to take the Austro-Hungarian positions on the crozzon del Diavolo between 1 and 4 May. After this the front more or less came to a standstill. To bring light supplies such as food and wine up to their front lines, the Italians changed from using mules to using dogs, as they were faster and needed less food. The front remained calm through most of 1917. The main operation was the Italian seizure of the Corno di Cavento in 15 June 15. On 27 September Austro-Hungarian attacked the town of Ponte di Legno with incendiary bombs and shells, destroying it and forcing its inhabitants to flee. Because this sector was at the western limits of the front, Italian troops were not withdrawn after the defeat at Caporetto as they were in the Dolomites and elsewhere, and fighting continued into 1918. The main operation of the year in this sector, known as the "White Battle", took place between 25 and 28 May. Seven battalions of Italian troops together with Arditi, machine gunners and around 200 pieces of artillery attacked and took the Presena glacier and nearby peaks. On 13 June the Austro-Hungarians launched a last attack to try to break the Italian lines. They threw all their remaining forces into the in the hope of trying to create a Caporetto-style breakthrough in the Alps. Without German support however they made no headway and the attack foundered in its first day. , at 3469 meters in the Ortles-Cevedale sector. |alt=DC-1915-35-v.jpg Exactly one year after losing the Corno di Cavento, on June 15, the Austro-Hungarians managed to regain it by digging a tunnel in the glacier, but the Italians were able to eject them again on July 19 and hold it thereafter. In another attack on 13 August the Alpini managed to regain the Torrione d'Albiolo, lost at the beginning of the war in 1915. On 1 November 1918 the final Italian attack came, this time on the Tonale Pass. The Austrians were no longer able to resist. Whole units surrendered and the Italian army was able to advance rapidly into the entire Val di Sole and on to Trento. This brought the war in Adamello to an end. == The Ortles-Cevedale sector==

in the Ortles-Cevedale sector. The Ortles-Cevedale peaks, on average 500m higher than those in the other two sectors, offered the most extreme conditions of all the Alpine battlefields. The ground here was also unusually hard, making the building of trenches and tunnels extremely difficult. These conditions made it almost impossible for either side to mount a decisive attack in the other, so the front was relatively static here. The major conflict here was the Battle of San Matteo, which took place in August 1918 on Punta San Matteo (3,678 meters). This was the highest altitude fighting seen anywhere in the First World War. ==Capture of Trento==

With the Italian victory at the battle of Vittorio Veneto, General Tassoni's 7th Army began the last high mountain campaign: the III Alpine group passed the Stelvio Pass and descended on Trafoi, while other Alpine units crossed the Gavia Pass and the Passo del Tonale and reached Peio and Fucine; from Adamello the Italian troops marched on Pinzolo, with the final objective of Merano and Bolzano. Along the Sarca valley, the 4th Division reached Tione and continued towards Trento; Without encountering much resistance, the Pavia brigade pushed its vanguards up to Arco, upstream from Riva del Garda. On the afternoon of 3 November the troops of the 1st Army reached Trento: the first departments to enter the city were at 3.15pm the cavalrymen of the "Alessandria" cavalry regiment, the Arditi of the XXIV assault department, the Alpini of the IV group; later the troops of the Pistoia brigade also arrived. ==Prisoners of war==

The effort of maintaining a solid front line in such extreme conditions was enormous and required enormous reserves of labour. For this reason, the Austro-Hungarian command compelled the local inhabitants of the valleys behind the front line – including women and children – to work for them. As these were not sufficient, the Austrians also drafted in prisoners of war captured on the eastern front, although the Hague Convention of 1907 prohibited this. These men were made to do the hardest and riskiest jobs, such as the construction of cableways and trails. They were also used away from the front line, in the valleys doing agricultural work, taking the place of those who had had to leave for the front. In 1915 there were around 27,000 prisoners in the Tyrol, but after this the count of both the living and the dead was soon lost. ==See also==