Ximenia americana

Tree Ximenia americana is a semiscandent plant that grows as a bush-forming shrub or small tree to between a height of , The trunk has a diameter of less than 10 cm (4 in); the bark has a colour of dark brown to pale gray. Leaves Leaves are simple, alternate or clustered on spur shoots, having a lanceolate (spear-like) to elliptic (oval) shape, are either obtuse, emarginate or retuse at the apex, and have a texture similar to leather. The leaves grow up to 2.5 to 8 cm (1 to 3 in) long and 1 to 4 cm (0.4 to 1.6 in) wide, have a thickness ranging from thin to semisucculent and have 3 to 7 pairs of lateral veins that are difficult to observe on both sides of the leaf. They curve upwards along the midrib. The petioles are short and thin, growing up to 3 to 6 mm (0.1 to 0.3 in) long. They are canaliculated, smooth and have a grey-green or bright green colour and flesh that is either leathery or thin. climatic conditions do not affect their maturation. Further classes of chemical compounds found in X. americana includes alkaloids, anthraquinones, glycosides, flavonoids, glycosides, phenolic compounds, phlobatannins, quinones, saponins, tannins, and terpenoids. Linolenate was also detected in the leaves, along with high levels of palmitate. The seed of the fruit contains cyanide derivatives The seed oil was observed to contain the compounds ximenic, linolenic, linoleic, and stearic acids along with smaller amounts of lumequic, ximenynic, arachidonic, erucic, and nervonic acids and a variety of other compounds. The volatile oil of the leaves were observed to be consisted of benzaldehyde (63.5%), hydroxybenzyl cyanide (13%) and isophorone (3.5%), the cyanide content contributes to the aforementioned almond-like smell of leaves. == Taxonomy ==

Jean Baptiste Christophore Fusée Aublet published occurrences of Heymassoli inermis and Heymassoli spinosa in Histoire des Plantes de la Guiane Françoise in 1775, which were then later identified as X. americana. The latter, Heymassoli spinosa, became the basionym for Ximenia spinosa which was published in A Botanical nomenclator : containing a systematical arrangement of the classes, orders, genera, and species of plants as described in the new edition of Linnæsus's Systema naturæ, by Dr. Gmelin by William Jr. Forsyth in 1794. Ximenia americana belongs to the Ximenia genus, along with 7 other species, that all belong to the Olacaceae family. Common names of the plant include "seaside plum", "small sourplum", "wild plum", "blue sour plum", "hog plum", "sour plum", "false sandalwood", "tallow nut", "tallow wood", "wild olivein", and "wild lime" in English. "chabbuli" and "ysada" in west Africa, "ghène", "n'ghani" and "léaman" in Ivory Coast and "kleinsuurpruim", "inkoy", "mutente", "kol", "mulebe", "mungomba", "musongwasongwa", "mulutulwa", "museka", "ntogé", "nogbé", "séno", "séné", "madarud", and "madarau", in other regions in Africa. "ameixa-da-terra", "ameixa", "ameixeira-do-Brasil", ameixa-brava", "ameixa-da-Baía", "ameixa-de-espinho", "ameixa-do-Pará", "ameixeira-do-Pará", and "muirapuama" in Brazil, "hicaco", "espino de brujo", "ciruelillo", "caimito de monte", "cagalero", "albaricoque", "albaria", "tigrito", and "almendro de costa" in Spanish and "citron de mer", "cerise de mer", "croc", "macaby", and "prunier de mer" in French. == Distribution and habitat ==

It is found in many habitats, predominantly in semi-arid bushlands and in dry and moist woodlands, sandy open woodlands, dry hilly areas, coastal bushlands, countrysides, shrub savannahs, forest lands and along watercourses such as riverbanks and stony slopes. X. americana occurs in altitudes up to 2000 m (6562 ft) and where mean annual rainfall is more than 500 mm. It grows on many soil types such as clay soils, clay muddy, silt sandy; however, it is mostly observed growing on poor and dry soil. It can also absorb nutrients and water from other plant species through its roots, however, it does not use this method as its mode of survival. == Ecology ==

Ximenia americana is a long-lived perennial and is found present in savannahs, one of their natural habitats, and are vital food sources for animals living in the same habitats, namely mammals like giraffes, who depend on the leaves of X. americana for its food. The vibrant colours of the fruit, which is oftentimes produced in large amounts during the early summer, attracts birds, such as bulbuls, starlings, and barbets, and other wildlife to feed on the fruit.) and Melissodes communis (the common long-horned bee). Ximenia americana can be classified as a facultative hemiparasite, due to its tendency to live off the roots of other nearby host species, but not as a way of survival as it can perfectly grow without a host. Due to this it can grow better in soil where it can come into contact with the roots of other plants. It can also attach to objects such as plastic or rocks. == Conservation ==

The IUCN red-list declared Ximenia americana as a "Least Concern" plant. This is mainly due to the wide distribution and large population of X. americana all over the world. No major threats have been identified to the species currently and in the future. This assessment was carried out by the IUCN SSC Global Tree Specialist Group and the Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI) in 2018. However, researchers in Ethiopia have noticed the plant becoming rare in their respective study areas, mainly due to the overuse of the plant and its components. They have suggested the rehabilitation of the plants, mainly by domestication, in hopes of conserving the species in those specific areas. == Cultivation ==

There have been no recorded cases of the domestication of X. americana. It is drought-resistant, making it a good source of food during dry periods. It is also tolerant of mild flooding, that occur during storms or floods, for short periods of time. It is also mildly tolerant of salty soil types and salt sprays and winds. Due to the semiparasitic roots, it grows well around other plants and is best grown next a host like oak. == Toxicity ==

Leaves containing the cyanogenic glycoside sambunigrin at 100 ppm were noted to be fatal for the freshwater snail, Bulinus globus, the species responsible for causing the disease schistosomiasis. Researchers noted that X. americana extract had no deaths when the toxic effects of the extract of the plant for 14 days, however, after an oral administration of 2000 mg.kg−1, forced breathing and analgesia in the animals were noted. Another study was conducted on the effects of the liquid extracts of the root, stem and leaves of X. americana on the blood and the liver, and damage to the cells of the liver were noted. == Uses ==

Food Ximenia americana can be utilized as a food source, mainly its fruit, which can be eaten raw or pickled, and can be used to replace lemon in fish recipes, make juice, jams or intoxicating drinks; In South Africa, a kind of beer is made from the fruits. The kernel of the fruit can be made into oil, which is used in cooking as a substitute for butter or ghee. Traditional medicine Methods of using X. americana in traditional medicine include infusion, decoction, syrup, cataplasm, or as a tincture. Crude extract Xymelys 45 containing X. americana bark extract is marketed as a cosmetic, and the seed oil is marketed for dry skin conditions. Horticulture The species is also used as a border and boundary, if it is cultivated as a hedge plant properly. The plant can also be used for decoration purposes as it has attractive flowers and foliage. == References ==