The history of Russian given names is usually divided in three stages: •
pre-Christian, period of pagan names, created by means of Old-East Slavic language. •
Christian, foreign Christian names began to replace old pagan names; small proportion of traditional names became canonical; •
modern, starting from October Revolution, characterized by elimination of difference between canonical, calendar and non-calendar names, active borrowing and active name construction.
Before the Christian era Before the adoption of Christianity until the end of the 10th century, eastern Slavs (ancestors of modern
Russians,
Ukrainians and
Belarusians) used almost exclusively Slavonic names which were given at birth. No distinction between first name and
nickname was made during this period. Given names in Old East Slavonic language (nickname, epithet, handle) are similar to appellation after a particular episode. Pre-Christian names were used in
Rus' several centuries after adoption of Christianity. They were commonly used alongside Christian names until the end of the XVII century. Old Slavonic names are exceptionally diverse. The Dictionary of Old Slavonic names by N. M. Tupikov, printed in 1903, comprised 5300 masculine and 50 feminine names. Old Slavonic names fall in several categories: ") used to be a personal name, hence the popularity of the surname Morozov • Numerical names representing birth order in a family:
Perva,
Pervoy (the first),
Vtorak (the second),
Tretyak (the third),
Chetvertak (the fourth) and so on. Due to biological limitations, those names wouldn't go far beyond ten (Desyatko). • Names based on individual characteristics, like hair and skin color. Names like Chernysh, Chernyai, Chernyava,(=black one) Bel, Belyai, Belyak, Beloukha (=white one) were widely used. Constitution features also could be reflected in a name: Mal (Small), Малюта, Малой (Smaller), Долгой (Tall), Сухой (thin one), Толстой (Fat one), Голова (Head), Головач, Лобан, Беспалой (Fingerless). • Names describing personality, habits and behaviour. Among them Забава (fun or game), Истома, Крик (scream), Скряба, Молчан (silent one), Неулыба (one who does not smile), Булгак (restless), Смеяна (one who laughs) и Несмеяна (one who does not laugh). • Names reflecting attitude toward the child, whether it was longed for: Богдан (gift of God) и Богдана, Бажен (desired one), Голуба, Любава (loved one), Ждан (awaited one) и Неждан (unexpected one), Хотен, Чаян и Нечай. • Seasonal names:
Veshnyak Вешняк (spring one), Zima
Зима (
winter), Moroz
Мороз (frost). • Animal and plant-related names: Бык (bull), Волк (wolf), Ворон (raven), Щука (pike), Кот (cat), Кошка (she-cat), Жеребец (Stallion), Корова (cow), Щавей (from щавель,
Rumex), Трава (grass), Пырей. It is believed that this kind of name is a relic of
totem beliefs. • Names related to beliefs that "bad" words can deflect evil spirits, diseases and even death: Горяин, Немил, Некрас (ugly one), Нелюба (loveless one), Неустрой, Злоба (Anger), Тугарин (from туга — печаль, sorrow). • Names related to other nations : Chudin
Чудин (after
Chud people,
чудь), Karel Карел,
Tatarin Татарин, Kozarin Козарин (от названия хазар), Ontoman
Онтоман (after
Turks people,
оттоманы). All previously mentioned names fall into domestic category were used in family circle. However, when a person entered a broader social group (changing his occupation or place of residence), his name was replaced or supplemented by another. This sort of nickname exceeds family names in number - an adult has more distinct characteristics that can be used as a basis for a nickname than a child. Not all pre-Christian names were equally popular. Only some tens of several thousand names were actively used. Popularity of pagan names resulted in formation of various diminutive forms: Bychko from Byk, Zhdanko from Zhdan, Puzeika from Puzo and so on. The most popular names had many forms. For example, root -bel- produced a wide range of names like Bela, Belka, Belava, Beloy, Belonya, Belyay, Belyash. Root -sem- produced 33 names, including Semanya, Semeika and Semushka. Increasing influence of the Russian Orthodox church on social life led to gradual elimination of pagan nicknames. However, they didn't become completely extinct, as they served as basis for major part of Russian surnames (the first stage of surname formation took place in the 15th century).
Establishment of Russian naming tradition "Минеи на год" (, Year calendar) picturing all saints organized by their respective days. This kind of icon was exhibited in a church, so that even the illiterate could consult them at any moment. Adoption of Christianity led to introduction of completely new, foreign names that were tightly connected to baptism ceremony: according to Christian tradition baptism presumes giving Christian name. Names were given according to
Menaion (), special books which described religious services, ceremonies for each day, including which saint to praise. Religious tradition dictated that children should be named in honor of a saint, praised on the day of baptism. Sometimes on birthday, sometimes any day between birth and baptism. Minei were extremely expensive, so some churches couldn't afford them. One possible solution was to use menologia () –
calendars with brief listing of religious celebrations and
Saints days. Minei were among the first books to be translated into Russian from Greek. With a rare exceptions names were not translated, preserving their original pronunciation. Their meaning was completely obscure for vast majority of people and they were perceived as alien. This state of things led on the one hand to long coexistence of Christian and pagan names and to active assimilation and transformation of Christian names.
Coexistence of old and new names Christian and pagan names coexisted up to the 17th century. One of the reasons is that parents could not choose a name for a child freely – a newborn was baptized according to the menologium. Sometimes several children in one family would bear one name. Furthermore, the total number of names in the menologium at the time didn't exceed 400. Pagan nicknames being more diverse and less restrictive provided a convenient way to distinguish people bearing one name. A practice established in the 14th to 16th centuries supposed giving two names: a baptismal name (usually modified) and a nickname. For example: Trofimko Czar (
Torpes the
Czar), Fedka Knyazets, Karp Guba, Prokopiy Gorbun (
Procopius the Humpback), Amvrosiy Kovyazin, Sidorko Litvin. This practice was widespread in all
stratas.
Boyar Andrei Kobyla (lit. Andrew the Mare) a progenitor of Romanov dynasty and some other boyar families man serve as an example as well his sons' names: Semyon Zherebets (Semyon the
Stallion), Aleksandr Yolka (Alexandre the
Spruce), Fyodor Koshka (Fyodor the
Cat). Craftsmen did name their children in the same manner. For example, Ivan Fyodorov the first man to print a book often signed as Ivan Fyodorov, son of Moskvit ( may also be translated as Ivan son of Fyodor, the moscovite). Influence of Russian Orthodox church steadily grew in 11th–14th centuries, its influence as a consolidating religious force after
Mongol invasion of Rus and during period of feudal fragmentation in
Kiev Rus became especially important. Unification of Russian feudal states also contributed to raise of church's influence on policy and society. Under influence of the church many
knyazes, descendants of
Rurik, began to abandon their pagan names in favor of Christian names.
Separation of baptismal, popular and literary forms In XVII century, names divided in the three distinct forms: popular (spoken), literary and baptismal (church form). This process was boosted by
Patriarch Nikon's reform. One of the ventures he undertook was to correct religious books, which had accumulated a lot of errors and misreadings as they used to be copied by sometimes illiterate scribes. As a result, religious services differed in different parts of the country. Patriarch Nikon set the goal to unify service in Russia and to correct errors in religious books (including menologia). New translations from Greek were made to achieve this goal. Corrected versions were printed in 1654.
Early Soviet Union Modern era begins right after October Revolution. The decree "On Separation of Church from State and Schools from Church" outlawed connection of any public and social acts with religious ceremonies. Since that baptism ceased to be a legally binding act. The right to register names was handed to civil authorities, namely
civil registry. As a result, the whole conception of name changed. Naming no longer depended on religious traditions and rules. Direct and tight connection with orthodox saints names was lost. Any citizen was free to choose a name he wished for himself and his children. As a matter of fact, any word could be used as a name; function of civil registry was reduced to proper registration of citizens. Social innovations gave incentive to develop "new names for new life".
Mikhail Frunze, a high-ranked soviet officer, Civil war veteran was among the first to use a new name, naming his son Timur. Another example is the case of
Demyan Bedny, a well-known atheistic activist who named his son Svet. The Soviet writer Artem Veseliy named his daughter Volga. Since 1924
Gosizdat started issuing calendars similar to those that had existed prior to the Revolution. This new kind of calendars included traditional but rare names given without reference to saints as well as new names. New names comprised non-baptismal names, both Russian and Slavic, borrowed names and newly formed names. Calendars of 1920-30 being a good reference wasn't the only source of names. As mentioned above, parents were free to pick any name they wished, and this freedom led to active name formation, which later was dubbed "anthroponymic bang". ==Formal Russian name and its derivative forms==