Early Bronze Age The site of Sam'al was occupied in the Early Bronze Age III/IV (c. 2700–2100 BC). Zincirli is located only 9 km north of
Tilmen Höyük, possibly the capital of the Zalpa/Zalwar kingdom, which eventually became one of the twenty vassal small states of the
Yamhad kingdom based on
Aleppo. New excavations revealed a monumental complex in the Middle Bronze Age II (ca. 1800–1700 BC), and another structure (Complex DD) that was destroyed in the mid to late 17th century BC, maybe by Hititte king
Hattusili I. This event was recently radiocarbon-dated to sometime between 1632 and 1610 BC, during the late Middle Bronze Age II (ca. 1700–1600 BC). Excavations by Chicago-Tubingen Expedition revealed that the
bit-hilani palace of Hilani I in Zincirli (believed by the early German excavators to be from Iron Age Sam'al period) was actually a large broadroom temple from Middle Bronze Age II, lasting roughly from 1800 to 1650 BC, destroyed in mid- to late 17th century BC based on 10 radiocarbon dates. Additional samples later produced a radiocarbon date of c. 1632–1610 BC for the destruction. The archaeological site of Zincirli was not abandoned after
Hattusili I's sack sometime around 1632 to 1610 BC, as there is recent evidence of Hittite occupation during the Late Bronze Age. There is also another ancient town of Zalpa, located at
Zalpuwa to the north of Ḫattuša near the Black Sea. That northern Zalpa was mentioned in the Hittite "Queen of Kanesh" myth. Scholars were formerly unsure about the location of 'Zalpa' that Hattusili I destroyed, and thought it was in the north.
Iron Age The Iron Age II town of Zincirli was founded about 900 BC, according to the inscription of Kilamuwa. The name of Gabbar suggests that he was an Aramaean chieftain seizing power in the predominantly Luwian area. The area flourished in the
Iron Age (Iron IIA period), initially under
Luwian-speaking
Neo-Hittites, and the city soon had become a kingdom. In the 9th and 8th century BC it came under control of the
Neo-Assyrian Empire and by the 7th century BC had become a directly ruled Assyrian province.
Aramean kingdom The Aramean kingdom flourished here from the early 900s to 713 BC, with its capital at Zinjirli. Its native
Samalian language name was
Yādiya or ''Ya'diya''. The Assyrians knew it as Sam'al, and in
Aramaic it was known as ''Ya'udi'', or Yaudi). This was a
middle power of the Middle-East in the early first millennium BC. A dynasty of eleven Aramean kings ruled this city state, that was formerly Luwian. The kingdom became a middle power at the end of the 10th century BC. It had expanded from being a
city state and gained territories from Carchemish, around
Adana from
Quwê and remained independent. It didn't become part of
Cilicia.
Assyrian expansion In 859 BC,
Shalmaneser III moved westward with his army to Lutibu in Sam’al, where he fought a hostile coalition of kings including a ruler of Sam’al named Hayyanu, as well as Sapalulme of Patina (also known as
Suppiluliuma (Pattin)). And soon after, there was also a battle near Alimus (Aliṣir/Alimush), the fortified city of the same Sapalulme the Patinean, where Shalmaneser again fought an anti-Assyrian coalition. Again, kings from Sam’al, Patina, Bit-Adini, Karkemiš, and others were members of this coalition. Shalmaneser defeated them. Hayyanu, king of Sam'al was again taking part, and later he was forced to pay tribute to Shalmaneser at the city of Dabigu along with others of these kings. At the end, in 717 BC, Assyria occupied the country under the rule of
Sargon II. ==Archaeology==