Army The Chenghua Emperor looked up to his military-minded grandfather and father, the
Xuande Emperor and
Emperor Yingzong, as his role models. He followed an active military policy and generously rewarded his generals, appointing nine counts and one marquis for their achievements. During the Chenghua era, the Ming army was organized into approximately 500 guards (
wei) under the
Weisuo system, with each guard consisting of battalions (
suo) spread throughout the empire. Theoretically, these guards were supposed to have 3 million soldiers, but in reality, the number was only about half of that. These guards were overseen by Five Chief Military Commissions. Additionally, there were over 70 guard units of Imperial Guards stationed in and around Beijing, theoretically adding another million men to the army. However, their actual numbers were much lower, as many of their soldiers were employed as laborers and tens of thousands of supernumerary officers were appointed and paid. Unlike the guards under the Five Chief Military Commissions, the Imperial Guards were not subject to their authority. They were also exempt from the nine defense areas along the northern border, which had approximately 300,000 soldiers who were better trained and supplied than the inland units. In the late 15th century, the military competence of hereditary officers had significantly declined and their ties to the throne had weakened compared to the beginning of the century. Instead of inexperienced second- or third titled generation descendants of once successful generals, military matters were now overseen by civilian officials and eunuchs who were committed to military careers. These armies were led by officials who were also involved in military affairs, including Han Yong (; 1422–1478), Wang Yue (; 1426–1499), Xiang Zhong (1421–1502), and Ma Wensheng (; 1426–1510).
Military reforms After ascending to the throne, the Chenghua Emperor implemented a new system of selecting officers through special examinations, but in the 1470s, there was a rise in the use of military trials. Concurrently, the Emperor initiated significant changes to the military training of the Beijing garrison units. Previously, soldiers from various provinces were sent to the
Three Great Camps () for training:
Wujun () for infantry,
Sanqian () for cavalry, and
Shenji () for units equipped with firearms. In May 1464, the Emperor ordered the reinstatement of a unified training corps (which had previously existed from 1449 to 1457) and divided it into twelve divisions (), each consisting of ten thousand soldiers. These soldiers were selected from a pool of over 300,000 individuals from the three camps, with the majority being sent back to their respective provinces. The purpose of this measure was to train infantry, cavalry, and units armed with firearms to work together in mixed divisions. Previously, these groups had been trained separately in three different camps. Marquis Sun Jizong was in overall command of these divisions, but the military side was actually led by eunuch Liu Yongcheng, a 73-year-old veteran from the Yongle Emperor's reign. Each division also had a deputy commander, known as
Jian qiang nei chen (; 'Armory-inspecting Eunuch'), who was a eunuch and in charge of firearms. The Emperor's most trusted personnel were responsible for closely guarding the firearms. Starting in the mid-1470s, the divisions were completely under the control of eunuchs, likely due to the influence of Wang Zhi. The newly trained Beijing corps played a crucial role in successful campaigns on the northern frontier, defeating the Mongols in 1471, 1473, and 1480, as well as the Jurchens in 1467 and 1479. Their reputation as fierce and ruthless soldiers earned them the responsibility of being on alert in case of an uprising in western Shaanxi in 1478. On the advice of Peng Shi, they remained in Beijing, as he was concerned about the safety of the civilian population if they were deployed. Despite this, small detachments were still sent to combat the insurgent Yao tribes in Guangxi. As time went on, the corps began to weaken as it was used for both public and private labor, leading to criticism. Nevertheless, during the early Chenghua era, it remained a strong and effective force.
Rebellions in the South-West frontier The Yao rebellion in Guangxi, led by tribal leader Hou Dagou (), had been brewing since the 1450s and broke out in 1464. At the same time, the Miao and Zhuang also rebelled. The center of the rebellion was in the mountainous landscape 120–160 km northwest of the seat of Xunzhou Prefecture (present-day
Guiping). The rebels surprised the Chinese by bringing the fighting from the mountains to the densely populated coastal areas of Guangdong. The rebellion and troop movements also spread to southern Huguang, Guizhou, and Jiangxi. Local dignitaries hoped to placate the Yao with amnesty and donations, but Minister of War Wang Hong () decided on a forceful response. He appointed Zhao Fu () to lead the expeditionary army, but the army was actually led by his deputy Han Yong, the new Governor of Guangdong. They had 30,000 soldiers at their disposal, including a thousand of the feared Mongol mounted archers, and 160,000 local forces. In 1466, Han Yong attacked the heart of the rebel territory in two columns drawn from Huguang from the north and from Guangdong from the west, and conquered them in a series of fierce battles. The pacification of the region took several more years. Han Yong, who remained in the south until 1468, reorganized local administration by establishing a new county, strengthening coordination between the Guangdong and Guangxi authorities, and incorporating Yao chieftains into Ming administration. Hou Dagou's rebellion was one of the strongest uprisings among the minority peoples of the southwest in the late 15th century, but it was not the only one. In the following years, the Miao and Yao also rebelled in different parts of southwestern China. Li Zhen (), a hereditary guard commander, repeatedly defeated them on the border of Guizhou and Huguang, instilling fear and terror among the subjugated areas. In 1467 and again in 1475–1476, he and his army slaughtered thousands of Miao rebels. Another rebellion occurred on the border of Guizhou and Sichuan from 1466 to 1468, and the Minister of War, Cheng Xin (), was sent to suppress it. However, the rebellion resurfaced in 1477–1480. In the 1460s and 1470s, a series of Miao rebellions erupted in southern Sichuan and were forcefully suppressed by the governor, Zhang Gang (). He alternately fought against the Miao in the south of the province and the Tibetans in the northwest. Even the Zhuangs rebelled, with their use of poisoned arrows causing fear among warriors. They were employed against the Yao during battles with Hou Dagou. By the end of the 15th century, the Zhuangs had rebelled twice against Ming rule.
Jingxiang rebellion The
Jingxiang rebellion of 1465–1476 was the most significant uprising in China during the 15th century. It was also considered the most significant social upheaval in the Ming state between the
civil war of 1399–1402 and the Li Zicheng rebellion in the final years of the Ming dynasty. The rebellion was named after the prefectures of
Jingzhou and
Xiangyang, located in the northwestern region of Huguang. During the early Ming period, the prefectures of Jingzhou and Xiangyang were largely uninhabited, but starting in the 1430s, they began to see an influx of illegal immigrants. In the 1460s, famines repeatedly struck northern China and the lower and middle regions of the Yangtze River, leading to an increase in the number of refugees in the Jingxiang region. It is estimated that there were less than two million refugees living independently from the state. These refugees were led by Liu Tong (), who united small bands of robbers and declared himself the King of Han. He then proceeded to establish his own administration and organize an army of ten thousand soldiers. In response, the government sent troops led by Zhu Yong (), Count of Funing, and Bai Gui (), Minister of Works. In 1465, these troops gathered from various provinces, including Li Zhen's troops from Huguang, and successfully crushed the rebellion. Liu Tong himself was captured in the summer of 1466. The issue of weak official administration persisted, and in 1470, an additional 900,000 individuals migrated to the region due to famine, sparking a new rebellion. Xiang Zhong, the chief censor at the time, was tasked with quelling the uprising. He enlisted the assistance of Li Zhen and raised an army of 250,000 in Huguang province. Together, they successfully suppressed the rebellion, resulting in the execution of hundreds, the exile of thousands, and the return of 1.5 million individuals to their respective homelands. However, people began to return to the region and in the summer of 1476, they rebelled once again. In response, the government sent Yuan Jie (), a censor, to investigate the social and economic conditions in the area. This sparked a lively discussion in the court about potential solutions to the problem. Ultimately, the government decided to address the issues through social and organizational measures in the region and entrusted Yuan Jie with their implementation. He recognized the rights of immigrants to the land they cultivated and registered over 113,000 families with 438,000 members. As per his suggestion, several new counties were established and by the end of 1476, the new prefecture of Yunyang was formed. In the seat of the new prefecture, a defense military command was established with jurisdiction over the adjacent counties of neighboring provinces. In just one year, Yuan Jie successfully stabilized the situation and brought calm to the region through proper administration.
Foreign policy and the attempted conquest of Hami The Ming presence beyond China's borders was merely symbolic, limited to granting titles, ranks, and trade privileges without interfering in the daily lives of those affected. States and tribes to the north and northwest of Ming China were eager to engage in trade and commerce with the Ming, resulting in an increase in the number and frequency of tribute messages. However, the Mongols were not hesitant to resort to raiding in order to expand trade and acquire more iron, grain, handicrafts, and luxury goods, much to the dismay of the Chinese. While Ming titles could lend legitimacy to the rule of the recipient and grant them the right to engage in tributary relations, the Ming government was not obligated to provide any official authority over their subjects, as they did in China. Despite this, the Chinese were still keen on expanding their influence and prestige in the northern steppes. During the Chenghua Emperor's reign, the Ming dynasty's interests in Central Asia were limited to attempting to gain control of
Hami, a
Silk Road city located in present-day
Xinjiang. The Uighur rulers of Hami were followers of Islam and acknowledged Ming sovereignty, receiving the title of
wang (king) from the Ming emperors. In the early 1470s, the ruler of Hami was killed by a prince from
Moghulistan who declared himself the Sultan of Turpan and immediately engaged in conflict with the "pagan" (non-Muslim) Oirats. This fighting occurred in the northwest region of his territory, specifically in the Ili Valley. In Beijing, ministers have been discussing whether to address the clashes and unrest in Hami through military action or diplomatic means (such as cutting ties). In 1473, the Ming attempted to reinstate the previous government in Hami. A small Chinese force was dispatched, with the support of two Mongol tribes who were the largest allies of the Ming in the region between China and Hami. The Mongols, numbering 30,000, joined the Chinese in their mission. Upon reaching Hami, however, they discovered that the enemy's army had already passed them, causing the Mongols to retreat and defend their own territories. The Chinese detachment was easily defeated by the Turpans. It was not until the early 1490s that the Chinese once again became involved in the situation in Hami.
Wars with the Mongols and Jurchens In Manchuria, there were 384 Jurchen tribal chiefs who held formal Ming titles as guard commanders. In 1465 and 1479, the Chenghua Emperor launched attacks against the Jurchens, utilizing the restored Ming military power. These campaigns were aided by Korean troops and proved successful in weakening the Jianzhou Jurchens, leaving them divided until the early 17th century. Due to the complex and ever-changing political landscape in Mongolia, the Chinese had only a vague understanding of the situation. In the latter half of the 15th century, the Mongols were divided into several groups: the Uriankhai in the north and northeast of the Beijing area, the Tumed Mongols in the north of Shanxi, and the Ordos Mongols in the Ordos region north of Shaanxi. The Chinese referred to the population living behind these groups as Tatars. Additionally, there were a number of small principalities along the Sino-Mongol border and the Silk Road in the northwest. Among all the Mongol groups, the Uriankhai were the most stable and had the closest relationship with the Ming dynasty. In 1468, the Mongols rebelled in
Guyuan, a border headquarters located between
Xi'an and
Lanzhou. The local Mongols had been settled there since the late 1460s and were under the rule of their own hereditary chiefs. In June 1468, for unknown reasons, they rose up and fortified themselves in the mountains north of the city, successfully defeating the local Ming troops. In response, the government sent an army led by Xiang Zhong and Ma Wensheng, who was then the chief censor and governor of Shaanxi. By the fall of 1468, the army had successfully eliminated the rebels within a few months, with the last of them being defeated in early 1469. The Guyuan incident raised concerns among some Beijing dignitaries about the presence of Mongols in Chinese territory and their potential connections with Mongols across the border and even with Tibetans. In 1468 and 1469, invaders from Mongolia attacked Yulin, further emphasizing the danger to the reorganized Beijing garrison. The commanders of the garrison were eager for battle in order to test their troops and gain glory and booty, but they faced opposition from grand secretaries Peng Shi and Shang Lu, who argued that the rebellion had already been defeated. The responsibility for resolving the situation was given to Wang Yue, the most capable follower of the war party associated with eunuchs and courtiers. He was transferred to Yulin at the end of 1469. In 1470, Wang successfully defeated the Mongol invaders in a series of battles. Bai Gui, an opponent of the war party and now minister of war, sent Yu Zijun () to the area as governor (he remained in office until 1477). Together, Yu Zijun and Wang Yue were able to stabilize the situation. While Wang was defeating the Mongols in the field (in 1471 and 1473), Yu planned the construction of a defensive wall at Ordos. Despite concerns about the cost, the government eventually gave permission in 1474. Within a few months, 40,000 soldiers built a 1777
li (1000 km) long wall, standing 9 meters high and equipped with numerous towers and other supporting structures. This wall proved effective in a major attack during the summer of 1482. Nevertheless, Mongol raids continued after that. At the end of the 15th century, the Mongol power was partly restored by
Batumöngke, the Great Khan of the Mongols from 1480. Under his leadership, the Mongols renewed their attacks on Chinese territory, nullifying the Ming victories of the 1470s. ==Death and legacy==