on rocks near
Almaty In 1697, two relatives of
Galdan Boshugtu Khan, Danjila and Rabdan, surrendered to the Qing
Kangxi Emperor. Their people were then organized into two Oolod
banners and resettled in what is now
Bayankhongor Province,
Mongolia. In 1731, five hundred households fled back to Dzungar territory while the remaining Olots were deported to
Hulunbuir. After 1761, some of them were resettled in
Arkhangai Province. The Dzungars who lived in an area that stretched from the west end of the
Great Wall of China to present-day eastern
Kazakhstan and from present-day northern
Kyrgyzstan to southern
Siberia (most of which is located in present-day
Xinjiang), were the last
nomadic empire to threaten China, which they did from the early 17th century through the middle of the 18th century. During this time, the Dzungar pioneered the local manifestation of a ‘Military Revolution’ in Central Eurasia after perfecting a process of manufacturing indigenously created gunpowder weapons. They created a mixed agro-pastoral economy, as well as complementary mining and manufacturing industries on their lands. The Dzungar managed to enact an empire-wide system of laws and policies to boost the use of the Oirat language in the region. After a series of inconclusive military conflicts that started in the 1680s, the Dzungars were subjugated by the
Manchu-led
Qing dynasty (1644–1911) in the late 1750s. Clarke argued that the Qing campaign in 1757–58 "amounted to the complete destruction of not only the Dzungar state but of the Dzungars as a people." After the
Qianlong Emperor led Qing forces to victory over the Dzungar Oirat (Western) Mongols in 1755, he originally was going to split the Dzungar Khanate into four tribes headed by four Khans. The Khoit tribe was to have the Dzungar leader Amursana as its Khan. Amursana rejected the Qing arrangement and rebelled since he wanted to be leader of a united Dzungar nation. Qianlong then issued his orders for the genocide and eradication of the entire Dzungar nation and name. Qing Manchu Bannermen and
Khalkha (Eastern) Mongols enslaved Dzungar women and children while slaying the other Dzungars. Qing scholar
Wei Yuan estimated the total population of Dzungars before the fall at 600,000 people, or 200,000 households. Oirat officer Saaral betrayed and battled against the Oirats. In a widely cited account of the war, Wei Yuan wrote that about 40% of the Dzungar households were killed by
smallpox, 20% fled to Russia or
Kazakh tribes, and 30% were killed by the Qing army of Manchu Bannermen and Khalkhas, leaving no
yurts in an area of several thousands
li except those of the surrendered. , 1769 During this war, Kazakhs attacked dispersed Oirats and
Altays. Based on this account, Wen-Djang Chu wrote that 80% of the 600,000 or more Dzungars, especially Choros, Olots, Khoid,
Baatud and
Zakhchin, were destroyed by disease and attack which Michael Clarke described as "the complete destruction of not only the Dzungar state but of the Zungars as a people." Historian
Peter Perdue attributed the devastation of the Dzungars to an explicit policy of extermination launched by Qianlong, but he also observed signs of a more lenient policy after mid-1757. The Dzungar genocide was completed by a combination of a smallpox epidemic and the direct slaughter of Dzungars by Qing forces made out of Manchu Bannermen and (Khalkha) Mongols. Anti-Dzungar
Uyghur rebels from the
Turfan and
Hami oases had submitted to Qing rule as vassals and requested Qing help for overthrowing Dzungar rule. Uyghur leaders like Emin Khoja were granted titles within the Qing nobility, and these Uyghurs helped supply the Qing military forces during the anti-Dzungar campaign. The Qing employed Khoja Emin in its campaign against the Dzungars and used him as an intermediary with Muslims from the
Tarim Basin to inform them that the Qing were only aiming to kill Dzungars and that they would leave the Muslims alone, and also to convince them to kill the Dzungars themselves and side with the Qing since the Qing noted the Muslims' resentment of their former experience under Dzungar rule at the hands of
Tsewang Rabtan. It was not until generations later that Dzungaria rebounded from the destruction and near liquidation of the Dzungars after the mass slayings of nearly a million Dzungars. Historian
Peter C. Perdue has shown that the annihilation of the Dzungars was the result of an explicit policy of extermination launched by Qianlong, Perdue attributed the elimination of the Dzungars to a "deliberate use of massacre" and has described it as an "ethnic genocide". The Qing "final solution" of genocide to solve the problem of the Dzungars made the Qing sponsored settlement of millions of Han Chinese, Hui, Turkestani Oasis people (Uyghurs) and Manchu Bannermen in Dzungaria possible, since the land was now devoid of Dzungars. In northern Xinjiang, the Qing brought in Han,
Hui, Uyghur,
Xibe, and Kazakh colonists after they exterminated the Dzungar Oirat Mongols in the region, with one third of Xinjiang's total population consisting of Hui and Han in the northern area, while around two thirds were Uyghurs in southern Xinjiang's Tarim Basin. In Dzungaria, the Qing established new cities like
Ürümqi (former Dihua of Qing, 迪化) and
Yining. The Qing were the ones who unified Xinjiang and changed its demographic situation. The depopulation of northern Xinjiang after the
Vajrayana Buddhist Oirats were slaughtered, led to the Qing settling Manchu, Sibo (Xibe),
Daurs,
Solons, Han Chinese, Hui Muslims, and Turkic Muslim
Taranchis in the north, with Han Chinese and Hui migrants making up the greatest number of settlers. Since it was the crushing of the Buddhist
Öölöd (Dzungars) by the Qing which led to promotion of Islam and the empowerment of the Muslim Begs in southern Xinjiang, and migration of Muslim
Taranchis to northern Xinjiang, it was proposed by Henry Schwarz that "the Qing victory was, in a certain sense, a victory for Islam". Xinjiang as a unified defined geographic identity was created and developed by the Qing. It was the Qing who led to Turkic Muslim power in the region increasing since the Mongol power was crushed by the Qing while Turkic Muslim culture and identity was tolerated or even promoted by the Qing. , a Dzungar officer under the
Qing dynasty Qianlong explicitly commemorated the Qing conquest of the Dzungars as having added new territory in Xinjiang to "China", defining China as a multi ethnic state, rejecting the idea that China only meant Han areas in "China proper", meaning that according to the Qing, both Han and non-Han peoples were part of "China", which included Xinjiang which the Qing conquered from the Dzungars. After the Qing were done conquering Dzungaria in 1759, they proclaimed that the new land which formerly belonged to the Dzungars, was now absorbed into "China" (Dulimbai Gurun) in a Manchu language memorial. The Qing expounded on their ideology that they were bringing together the "outer" non-Han Chinese like the Inner Mongols, Eastern Mongols, Oirat Mongols, and Tibetans together with the "inner" Han Chinese, into "one family" united in the Qing state, showing that the diverse subjects of the Qing were all part of one family, the Qing used the phrase "Zhong Wai Yi Jia" 中外一家 or "Nei Wai Yi Jia" 內外一家 ("interior and exterior as one family"), to convey this idea of "unification" of the different peoples. In the Manchu official
Tulišen's Manchu language
account of his meeting with the
Torghut leader Ayuka Khan, it was mentioned that while the Torghuts were unlike the Russians, the "people of the Central Kingdom" (dulimba-i gurun 中國, Zhongguo) were like the Torghut Mongols, and the "people of the Central Kingdom" referred to the Manchus. The Hulun Buir Oolods formed an administrative banner along the Imin and Shinekhen Rivers. During the Qing dynasty, a body of them resettled in
Yakeshi city. In 1764 many Oolods migrated to
Khovd Province in Mongolia and supplied corvee services for the Khovd garrison of the Qing. Their number reached 9,100 in 1989. A united administrative unit was demanded by them. The Dzungars remaining in
Xinjiang were also renamed Oolods. They dominated 30 of the 148 Mongol
sums during the Qing dynasty era. They numbered 25,000 in 1999. File:Huang Qing Zhigong Tu, 1769, commoner from Ili and other regions, with his wife.jpg|A commoner from
Ili and other regions, with his wife. Huang Qing Zhigong Tu, 1769 File:Langshining mao.jpg|Ayusi riding a horse ==References==