History of Malaysia

, in Sarawak, has been identified as the earliest evidence for human settlement in Malaysian Borneo (photo December 1958). Stone hand axes from early hominids, probably Homo erectus, have been unearthed in Lenggong. These axes date back 1.83 million years, making them some of the oldest evidence of hominid habitation in Southeast Asia. The earliest evidence of modern human habitation in Malaysia is a 40,000-year-old skull excavated from the Niah Caves in present-day Sarawak. This skull is also one of the oldest modern human remains found in Southeast Asia. The first foragers visited the West Mouth of the Niah Caves, located 110 kilometers (68 miles) southwest of Miri, 40,000 years ago when Borneo was connected to the mainland of Southeast Asia. Mesolithic and Neolithic burial sites have also been discovered in the area. The region around the Niah Caves has been designated as Niah National Park. A study of Asian genetics suggests that the original humans in East Asia came from Southeast Asia. The oldest complete skeleton found in Malaysia is the 11,000-year-old Perak Man, unearthed in 1991. Indigenous groups on the peninsula (known as the Orang Asli) can be divided into three ethnicities: the Negritos, the Senoi, and the Proto-Malays. The first inhabitants of the Malay Peninsula were most likely Negritos. These Mesolithic hunters were probably the ancestors of the Semang, an ethnic Negrito group. The Semang populations on the coast died out in the 20th century but there are still groups living in the interior of the Peninsula. The Senoi appear to be a composite group, with approximately half of their maternal mitochondrial DNA lineages tracing back to the ancestors of the Semang and about half to later ancestral migrations from Indochina. Scholars suggest they are descendants of early Austroasiatic-speaking agriculturalists, who brought both their language and technology to the southern part of the peninsula approximately 4,000 years ago. They eventually united and coalesced with the indigenous population. The Proto-Malays have a more diverse origin and had settled in Malaysia by 1000 BC as a result of Austronesian expansion. Although they show some connections with other inhabitants of Maritime Southeast Asia, some also have ancestry in Indochina around the time of the Last Glacial Maximum, about 20,000 years ago. Areas comprising what is now Malaysia participated in the Maritime Jade Road, a trading network that existed for 3,000 years, between 2000 BC and 1000 AD. Anthropologists support the notion that the Proto-Malays originated from what is today Yunnan, China. This was followed by an early-Holocene dispersal through the Malay Peninsula into the Malay Archipelago. Around 300 BC, they were pushed inland by the Deutero-Malays, an Iron Age or Bronze Age people descended partly from the Chams of Cambodia and Vietnam. The Deutero-Malays, the first group in the peninsula to use metal tools, were direct ancestors of modern Malaysian Malays and introduced advanced farming techniques. == Early Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms ==

cultural influence zone of Greater India for transmission of religion, music, arts, and cuisine In the first millennium AD, the Malay became the dominant ethnicity on the peninsula. The small early states that were established were greatly influenced by Indian culture, as was most of Southeast Asia. Trade with India and China In ancient Indian literature, the term Suvarnadvipa (Golden Peninsula) is used in the Ramayana; some argue that this is a reference to the Malay Peninsula. The ancient Indian text Vayu Purana also mentions a place named Malayadvipa; this term may refer to Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula. The Malay Peninsula was shown on Ptolemy's map as the Golden Chersonese. Trade relations with China and India were established in the 1st century BC. Shards of Chinese pottery have been found in Borneo dating from the 1st century following the southward expansion of the Han dynasty. In the early centuries of the first millennium, the people of the Malay Peninsula adopted the Indian religions of Hinduism and Buddhism, which had a major effect on the language and culture of those living in Malaysia. The Sanskrit writing system was used as early as the 4th century. Early kingdoms (3rd–7th centuries) There were as many as 30 Malay kingdoms in the 2nd and 3rd centuries, mainly based on the eastern side of the Malay Peninsula. It was closely tied to Funan in Cambodia, which also ruled parts of northern Malaysia until the 6th century. In the 5th century, the Kingdom of Pahang was mentioned in the Book of Song. Besides this, Chi Tu and Pan Pan were old polities believed to be located in the northeast of the peninsula. Gangga Negara Gangga Negara was a semi-legendary Hindu kingdom mentioned in the Malay Annals that covered present-day Beruas, Dinding and Manjung in the state of Perak, Malaysia with Raja Gangga Shah Johan as one of its kings. According to the legendary Hikayat Merong Mahawangsa, Gangga Negara was founded by Merong Mahawangsa's son Raja Ganji Sarjuna of Kedah, allegedly a descendant of Alexander the Great or by the Khmer royalty no later than the 2nd century. Old Kedah Ptolemy, a Greek geographer, had written about the Golden Chersonese, which indicated that trade with India and China had existed since the 1st century AD. During this time, coastal city-states that existed had a trade network which encompassed the southern part of the Indochinese Peninsula and the western part of the Malay Archipelago. These coastal cities had ongoing trade as well as tributary relations with China, at the same time being in constant contact with Indian traders. They seem to have shared a common indigenous culture. Gradually, the rulers of the western part of the archipelago adopted Indian cultural and political models. Three inscriptions found in Palembang (South Sumatra) and on Bangka Island, written in the form of Malay and in alphabets derived from the Pallava script, are proof that the archipelago had adopted Indian models while maintaining their indigenous language and social system. These inscriptions reveal the existence of a Dapunta Hyang (lord) of Srivijaya who led an expedition against his enemies and who curses those who does not obey his law. Being on the maritime trade route between China and South India, the Malay Peninsula was involved in this trade. The Bujang Valley, being strategically located at the northwest entrance of the Strait of Malacca as well as facing the Bay of Bengal, was continuously frequented by Chinese and south Indian traders. Such was proven by the discovery of trade ceramics, sculptures, inscriptions and monuments dated from the 5th to 14th century. Srivijaya (7th–13th century) Between the 7th and the 13th century, much of the Malay Peninsula was under the influence of Srivijaya. The site Prasasti Hujung Langit, which sat at the centre of Srivijaya's empire, is thought to be at a river mouth in eastern Sumatra, based near what is now Palembang, Indonesia. In 1025, the Chola dynasty captured Palembang, the king, all his family members and his courtiers had their wealth taken away; by the end of the 12th century Srivijaya had been reduced to a kingdom, with their last ruler, Queen Sekerummong being conquered and overthrown in 1288. Majapahit, a subordinate to Srivijaya, soon dominated the region's political scene. Relations with the Chola Empire The relation between Srivijaya and the Chola Empire of south India was friendly during the reign of Raja Raja Chola I but during the reign of Rajendra Chola I the Chola Empire invaded Srivijaya cities (see Chola invasion of Srivijaya). In 1025 and 1026, Gangga Negara was attacked by Rajendra Chola I of the Chola Empire, the Tamil emperor who is now thought to have laid Kota Gelanggi to waste. Kedah (known as Kadaram in Tamil) was invaded by the Cholas in 1025. A second invasion was led by Virarajendra Chola of the Chola dynasty who conquered Kedah in the late 11th century. The senior Chola's successor, Vira Rajendra Chola, had to put down a Kedah rebellion to overthrow other invaders. The coming of the Chola reduced the majesty of Srivijaya, which had exerted influence over Kedah, Pattani and as far as Ligor. During the reign of Kulothunga Chola I, Chola overlordship was established over the Srivijaya province Kedah in the late 11th century. The expedition of the Chola Emperors had such a great impression on the Malay people of the medieval period that their name was mentioned in the corrupted form as Raja Chulan in the medieval Malay chronicle Sejarah Melaya. Even today, the Chola rule is remembered in Malaysia as many Malaysian princes have names ending with Cholan or Chulan, one such was the Raja of Perak called Raja Chulan. Pattinapalai, a Tamil poem of the 2nd century AD, describes goods from Kedaram heaped in the broad streets of the Chola capital. The Buddhist kingdom of Ligor took control of Kedah shortly after. Its king Chandrabhanu used it as a base to attack Sri Lanka in the 11th century and ruled the northern parts, an event noted in a stone inscription in Nagapattinum in Tamil Nadu and the Sri Lankan chronicles, Mahavamsa. Decline and breakup At times, the Khmer Empire, the Siamese Kingdom, and the Chola Empire had tried to exert control over the smaller Malay states. According to the Malay Annals, a new ruler named Sang Sapurba was promoted as the new paramount of the Srivijayan mandala. It was said that after he acceded to Seguntang Hill with his two younger brothers, Sang Sapurba entered into a sacred covenant with Demang Lebar Daun, the native ruler of Palembang. The newly installed sovereign afterwards descended from the hill of Seguntang into the great plain of the Musi River, where he married Wan Sendari, the daughter of the local chief, Demang Lebar Daun. Sang Sapurba was said to have reigned in Minangkabau lands. In 1324, a Srivijaya prince, Sang Nila Utama founded the Kingdom of Singapura (Temasek). According to tradition, he was related to Sang Sapurba. He maintained control over Temasek for 48 years. He was recognized as ruler over Temasek by an envoy of the Chinese Emperor sometime around 1366. He was succeeded by his son Paduka Sri Pekerma Wira Diraja (1372–1386) and grandson, Paduka Seri Rana Wira Kerma (1386–1399). In 1401, the last ruler, Paduka Sri Maharaja Parameswara, was expelled from Temasek by forces from Majapahit or Ayutthaya. He later headed north and founded the Sultanate of Malacca in 1402. The Sultanate of Malacca succeeded the Srivijaya Empire as a Malay political entity in the archipelago. == Rise of Muslim states ==

. The stone monument is found in Terengganu. Islam came to the Malay Archipelago through the Arab and Indian traders in the 13th century, ending the age of Hinduism and Buddhism. It arrived in the region gradually and became the religion of the elite before it spread to the commoners. The syncretic form of Islam in Malaysia was influenced by previous religions and was originally not orthodox. , who travelled together with Admiral Zheng He. In Malacca during the early 15th century, Ming China actively sought to develop a commercial hub and a base of operation for their treasure voyages into the Indian Ocean. In 1405, the Ming court dispatched Admiral Zheng He with a stone tablet enfeoffing the Western Mountain of Malacca as well as an imperial order elevating the status of the port to a country. Due to Chinese involvement, Malacca had grown as a key alternative to other important and established ports. The Chinese and Indians who settled in the Malay Peninsula before and during this period are the ancestors of today's Baba-Nyonya and Chitty communities. According to one theory, Parameswara became a Muslim when he married a Princess of Pasai and he took the fashionable Persian title "Shah", calling himself Iskandar Shah. Through the influence of Indian Muslims and, to a lesser extent, Hui people from China, Islam became increasingly common during the 15th century. Rise of Malacca in the 15th century became the main point for the spreading of Islam in the Malay Archipelago. After an initial period paying tribute to the Ayutthaya, The political power of the Malacca Sultanate helped Islam's rapid spread through the archipelago. the Demak Sultanate in Java, and other kingdoms around the Malay Archipelago increasingly converting to Islam, it had become the dominant religion among Malays, and reached as far as the modern-day Philippines, leaving Bali as an isolated outpost of Hinduism today. The government in Malacca was based on the feudal system. Malacca's reign lasted little more than a century, but during this time became the established centre of Malay culture. Most future Malay states originated from this period. Post-Malaccan sultanates From the 15th century onwards, the Portuguese started seeking a maritime route to Asia. In 1511, Afonso de Albuquerque led an expedition to Malaya which seized Malacca with the intent of using it as a base for activities in Southeast Asia. in 1606 to gain control of Malacca In the early 17th century, the Dutch East India Company (Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie, or VOC) was established. Backed by the Dutch, Johor established a loose hegemony over the Malay states, except Perak, which was able to play-off Johor against the Siamese to the north and retain its independence. The Dutch did not interfere in local matters in Malacca, but at the same time diverted most trade to its colonies on Java. The Portuguese and Johor were frequently in conflict in the 16th century, most notably in the 1587 siege of Johor. During the Triangular war, Aceh launched multiple raids against both Johor and Portuguese forces to tighten its grip over the straits. The rise and expansion of Aceh encouraged the Portuguese and Johor to sign a short-lived truce. During the rule of Iskandar Muda, Aceh attacked Johor in 1613 and again in 1615. In the early 17th century, the Dutch reached Southeast Asia. At that time the Dutch were at war with the Portuguese and allied themselves to Johor. Two treaties were signed between Admiral Cornelis Matelief de Jonge and Raja Bongsu of Johor in 1606. The combined Johor-Dutch forces ultimately failed to capture Malacca in 1606. Finally in 1641, the Dutch and Johor headed by Bendahara Skudai, defeated the Portuguese in the Battle of Malacca. The Dutch took control of Malacca and agreed not to seek territories or wage war with Johor. By the time the fortress at Malacca surrendered, the town's population had already been greatly decimated by famine and disease. With the fall of Portuguese Malacca in 1641 and the decline of Aceh due to the growing power of the Dutch, Johor started to re-establish itself as a power along the Straits of Malacca during the reign of Sultan Abdul Jalil Shah III (1623–1677). Jambi emerged as a regional economic and political power in Sumatra. Initially there was an attempt of an alliance between Johor and Jambi by way of a promised marriage. However, the alliance broke down and the Johor-Jambi war (1666–1679) ensued. After the sacking of Batu Sawar by Jambi in 1673, the capital of Johor was frequently moved to avoid the threat of attack. During the reign of Sultan Mahmud Shah III, the mid-to-late 18th century saw the Bugis attempting to expand their influence in the region. This brought them into conflicts with the Dutch, which resulted in a final major battle in 1784 between the two, which ended Bugis and Johor dominance in the region. He ascended to the throne as Muzaffar Shah I (1528–1549), first Sultan of Perak, after surviving the capture of Malacca by the Portuguese in 1511 and living quietly in Siak for a period. He became sultan through the efforts of Tun Saban, a local leader and trader between Perak and Klang. Most of the area's residents were traders from Malacca, Selangor and Sumatra. Perak's administration became more organised after the Sultanate was established. With the opening up of Perak in the 16th century, the state became a source of tin ore. It appears that anyone was free to trade in the commodity, although the tin trade did not attract significant attention until the 1610s. 's influence in Perak, Kedah, Pahang, and Terengganu on the Malay Peninsula, Throughout the early 17th century, the Sultanate of Aceh continually harassed most parts of the Malay Peninsula. Although Perak fell under the authority of Aceh, it remained entirely independent from Siamese control for over 200 years from 1612, in contrast with its neighbour, Kedah, and other northern Malay sultanates. When the last Perak sultan of direct Malaccan lineage, Sallehuddin Riayat Shah died without an heir in 1635, a state of uncertainty prevailed in Perak. This was exacerbated by a deadly cholera epidemic. When Perak refused to enter into a contract with the VOC as its northern neighbours had done, a blockade of the Perak River halted the tin trade, causing suffering among Aceh's merchants. In 1650, Aceh's Sultana Taj ul-Alam ordered Perak to sign an agreement with the VOC, on condition that the tin trade would be conducted exclusively with Aceh's merchants. By the following year, the VOC had secured a monopoly over the tin trade, setting up a store in Perak. Following the long competition between Aceh and the VOC over Perak's tin trade, on 15 December 1653, the two parties jointly signed a treaty with Perak granting the Dutch exclusive rights to tin extracted from mines located in the state. In 1699, when Johor lost its last sultan of Malaccan lineage, Sultan Mahmud Shah II, Perak now had the sole claim of being the final heir of the old Sultanate of Malacca. However, Perak could not match the prestige and power of either the Malaccan or Johor Sultanates. Pahang Sultanate The Old Pahang Sultanate centred in modern-day Pekan was established in the 15th century. At the height of its influence, the sultanate controlled the entire Pahang basin. The sultanate had its origins as a vassal to the Malaccan Sultanate. Its first sultan was a Malaccan prince, Muhammad Shah (1455–1475), himself the grandson of Dewa Sura, the last pre-Malaccan ruler of Pahang. In 1528, when the last Malaccan sultan died, the sultan at the time, Mahmud Shah I (c. 1519–1530) joined forces with the Sultan of Johor, Alauddin Riayat Shah II, and began to expel the Portuguese from the Malay Peninsula. Two attempts were made in 1547 at Muar and in 1551 at Portuguese Malacca. However, in the face of superior Portuguese arms and vessels, the Pahang and Johor forces were forced to retreat on both occasions. and his courtiers. Many years after the precolonial period. c. 1900. During the reign of Sultan Abdul Kadir (1560–1590), Pahang enjoyed a brief period of cordial relations with the Portuguese in the second half of the 16th century. However, in 1607, following a visit by Admiral Matelief de Jonge of the Dutch Empire, Pahang cooperated with them in an attempt to get rid of the Portuguese. After Johor won in 1679, the Bugis decided to stay and asserted their power in the region. Many Bugis began to migrate and settle along the coast of Selangor such as the estuaries of the Selangor and Klang rivers. Some Minangkabaus may have also settled in Selangor by the 17th century, perhaps earlier. The Bugis and the Minangkabaus from Sumatra struggled for control of Johor. Raja Kecil, backed by the Minangkabaus, invaded Selangor but were driven off by the Bugis in 1742. To establish a power base, the Bugis led by Raja Salehuddin (1705–1788) founded the present hereditary Selangor Sultanate with its capital at Kuala Selangor in 1766. Selangor is unique as it is the only state on the Malay Peninsula that was founded by the Bugis. Brunei Sultanate Before its conversion to Islam, the oldest records of Brunei in Arabic sources defined it as "Sribuza" which was a Bornean Vassal-State to Srivijaya. The Arabic author Ya'qubi writing in the 9th century recorded that the kingdom of Musa (probably referring to Brunei) was in alliance with the kingdom of Mayd (either Ma-i or Madja-as in the Philippines), against the Tang dynasty. One of the earliest Chinese records of an independent kingdom in Borneo was the 977 letter to the Song dynasty emperor from the ruler of Boni (Brunei). The Bruneians regained their independence from Srivijaya due to the onset of a Javanese-Sumatran war. In 1225, the Chinese official Zhao Rukuo reported that Boni had 100 warships to protect its trade, and that there was great wealth in the kingdom. In the 14th century, a Chinese annal (Yuan Dade Nanhai zhi) reported that Boni invaded or administered Sabah, some parts of Sarawak and ruled the formerly independent kingdoms of Butuan, Sulu and Mayd, as well as Malilu and Wenduling in present-day Manila and Mindanao, at northern and southern Philippines, respectively. Later, the Sulu kingdom invaded and occupied ports in Boni-ruled Sabah. They were later evicted with the help of the Majapahit Empire, which Brunei became a vassal to in the late 14th century. Nevertheless, the Sulus stole 2 Sacred Pearls from the Brunei king. By the 15th century, the empire became a Muslim state, when the king of Brunei converted to Islam, brought Muslim Indians and Arab merchants from other parts of Maritime Southeast Asia, who came to trade and spread Islam. During the rule of Bolkiah (1485–1524) the empire controlled the coastal areas of northwest Borneo and reached the Philippines at Seludong (present-day Manila), the Sulu Archipelago and some parts of Mindanao which Brunei had incorporated via royal intermarriage with the rulers of Sulu, Manila and Maguindanao. 16th–18th century of London. In the 16th century, the Brunei empire's influence also extended as far as Kapuas River delta in West Kalimantan. Other sultanates in the area had close relations with the Brunei Monarchy, being in some cases effectively under the hegemony of the Brunei ruling family for periods of time, such as the Malay sultans of Pontianak, Samarinda and Banjarmasin. The Malay Sultanate of Sambas (present-day West Kalimantan), the Sultanate of Sulu and the Muslim Rajahs of precolonial Manila had developed dynastic relations with the royal house of Brunei. The Sultanate of Sarawak (covering present day Kuching, known to the Portuguese cartographers as Cerava, and one of the five great seaports on the island of Borneo), though under the influence of Brunei, was self-governed under Sultan Tengah before being fully integrated into the Bruneian Empire upon sultan Tengah's death in 1641. The Bruneian empire began to decline during the arrival of western powers. Spain sent several expeditions from Mexico to invade and colonise Brunei's territories in the Philippines. Eventually the Spanish, their Visayan allies and their Latin-American recruits assaulted Brunei itself during the Castilian War. Though there were rapes, sacks and pillaging, the invasion was only temporary as the Spanish retreated. Brunei was unable to regain the territory it lost in the Philippines, yet it still maintained sway in Borneo. 19th century By the early 19th century, Sarawak had become a loosely governed territory under the control of the Brunei Sultanate. Brunei only had authority along the coastal regions of Sarawak where it was held by semi-independent Malay leaders. Meanwhile, the interior of Sarawak suffered from tribal wars fought by Iban, Kayan, and Kenyah peoples, who aggressively fought to expand their territories. Following the discovery of antimony ore in the Kuching region, Pangeran Indera Mahkota (a representative of the Sultan of Brunei) began to develop the territory between 1824 and 1830. When antimony production increased, the Brunei Sultanate demanded higher taxes from Sarawak, which led to civil unrest and chaos. In 1839, Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin II (1827–1852), ordered his uncle the Pengiran Muda Hashim to restore order. It was around this time that James Brooke arrived in Sarawak, and Pengiran Muda Hashim requested his assistance in the matter, but Brooke refused. However, he agreed to a further request during his next visit to Sarawak in 1840. On 24 September 1841, Pengiran Muda Hashim agreed to depose Pangeran Indera Mahkota and bestow the title of governor on James Brooke. This appointment was later confirmed by the Sultan of Brunei in 1842. == Struggles for hegemony ==

The weakness of the small coastal Malay states led to the immigration of the Bugis, escaping from Dutch colonisation of Sulawesi, who established numerous settlements on the peninsula which they used to interfere with Dutch trade. When the Siamese army invaded and occupied Kedah between 1821 and 1842, local Arab families supported the Sultan's efforts to lead resistance. In 1842, Sultan Ahmad Tajuddin finally agreed to accept Siamese terms and was restored to his throne of Kedah. The following year, Syed Hussein Jamalullail was installed by the Siamese as the first Raja of Perlis, after the Sultan of Kedah gave his endorsement for the formation of Perlis; Siam separated Perlis into a separate principality directly vassal to Bangkok. Around 1760, Long Yunus, an aristocratic warlord of Patani origin, succeeded in unifying the territory of present-day Kelantan and was succeeded in 1795 by his son-in-law, Tengku Muhammad, by Sultan Mansur of Terengganu. The enthronement of Tengku Muhammad by a noble from Terengganu was opposed by Long Yunus' sons, thus triggering a war against Terengganu by Long Muhammad, the eldest son of Long Yunus. The pro-Terengganu faction was defeated in 1800, and Long Muhammad ruled Kelantan with the new title of sultan as Sultan Muhammad I. Terengganu experienced stability under the reign of Sultan Omar Riayat Shah, who was remembered as a devout ruler who promoted trade and stable government. Under Thai rule, Terengganu prospered and was largely left alone by the authorities in Bangkok. As Patani was not included in the Anglo-Siamese Treaty of 1909 and remained under Siamese rule, this led Patani to be excluded from the Federation of Malaya in 1957. British influence in the Fort Cornwallis, Penang, marking the start of British rule in the Malay Archipelago Before the mid-19th century, British interests in the region were predominantly economic, with little interest in territorial control. Already the strongest European power in India, the British were looking towards Southeast Asia for new territories. The growth of the China trade in British ships increased the East India Company's desire for bases in the region. Various islands were used for this purpose, but the first permanent acquisition was Penang, leased from the Sultan of Kedah in 1786. This was followed soon after by the leasing of a block of territory on the mainland opposite Penang (known as Province Wellesley). In 1795, during the Napoleonic Wars, the British, with the consent of the Dutch under French occupation, occupied Dutch Melaka to forestall possible French encroachment. the British governor, Stamford Raffles, looked for an alternative base, and in 1819 he acquired Singapore from the Sultan of Johor. The exchange of the British colony of Bencoolen for Malacca with the Dutch left the British as the sole colonial power on the peninsula. The territories of the British were set up as free ports, attempting to break the monopoly held by the Dutch and French at the time, and making them large bases of trade. They allowed Britain to control all trade through the straits of Malacca. British influence was increased by Malayan fears of Siamese expansionism, to which Britain made a useful counterweight. During the 19th century, the Malay Sultans aligned themselves with the British Empire, due to the benefits of associations with the British and their fear of Siamese or Burmese incursions. In 1824, British control in Malaya (before the name Malaysia) was formalised by the Anglo-Dutch Treaty, which divided the Malay Archipelago between Britain and the Netherlands. The Dutch evacuated Melaka and renounced all interest in Malaya, while the British recognised Dutch rule over the rest of the East Indies. By 1846, the British controlled Penang, Malacca, Singapore, and the island of Labuan, which they established as the crown colony of the Straits Settlements, administered first under the East India Company until 1867, when they were transferred to the Colonial Office in London. Throughout the 19th century, the British became increasingly more active in the internal politics of the sultanates, such as its involvement in the Naning War (1831–1832), the Pahang Civil War (1857–1863), the Larut Wars (1861–1874), and the Klang War (1867–1874). ==Colonial era==

British in Malaya Initially, the British followed a policy of non-intervention in relations between the Malay states. These advisors held power in everything except to do with Malay religion and customs. The four previously Siamese states and Johor were known as the Unfederated Malay States. The states under the most direct British control developed rapidly, becoming the largest suppliers in the world of first tin, then rubber. British in Borneo hoisted for the first time on the island of Labuan on 24 December 1846 During the late 19th century the British also gained control of the north coast of Borneo. Development on the peninsula and Borneo were generally separate until the 19th century. The eastern part of this region (now Sabah) was under the nominal control of the Sultan of Sulu, who later became a vassal of the Spanish East Indies. The rest was the territory of the Sultanate of Brunei. In 1840, British adventurer James Brooke helped suppress a revolt, and in return received the title of raja and the right to govern the Sarawak River District in 1841. In 1843, his title was recognised as hereditary, and the "White Rajahs" began ruling Sarawak as a de facto independent state in 1846. The Brookes expanded Sarawak at the expense of Brunei. Since the administration of President Diosdado Macapagal the Philippines have laid claim to eastern Sabah on the basis that the territory was part of the defunct Sultanate of Sulu's territory. In 1888, what was left of Brunei was made a British protectorate, and in 1891 another Anglo-Dutch treaty formalised the border between British and Dutch Borneo. Race relations during colonial era In the pre-colonial period and the first few decades after formal colonial rule began in British Malaya, "Malay" was neither a racial category nor a fixed identity in the modern sense. The British imposed the concept of race on their colonial subjects. Unlike some colonial powers, the British viewed their empire as an economic venture, expecting their colonies to generate profits for shareholders in London. Initially, British colonisers were drawn to the Malay Archipelago's tin and gold mines. Soon, however, British planters experimented with tropical plantation crops—tapioca, gambier, pepper, and coffee—and in 1877, introduced the rubber plant from Brazil. Rubber quickly became Malaya's primary export, driven by surging demand from European industry, and was later complemented by palm oil. These industries demanded a large labour force, prompting the British to bring workers from the longer-established British colony in India, mostly Tamil-speakers from South India, to serve as indentured labourers on plantations. Meanwhile, the mines, mills, and docks attracted numerous immigrant workers from southern China. As a result, towns like Singapore, Penang, and Ipoh, along with Kuala Lumpur—founded as a tin-mining centre in 1857—became majority Chinese. By 1891, when Malaya's first census was conducted, the main tin-mining states of Perak and Selangor had Chinese majorities. Workers often faced violent treatment from contractors and frequent sickness. Many Chinese labourers saw their debts grow due to addictions to opium and gambling—vices that generated significant revenue for the British colonial government—while Indian labourers' debts increased through alcohol dependency. These debts tied workers to their labour contracts for extended periods. To this end, the colonial government established Malay College in 1905, dubbed "Bab ud-Darajat" (Gateway to High Rank), and launched the Malay Administrative Service in 1910. In 1938, Ibrahim Yaacob, an alumnus of Sultan Idris College, founded the Kesatuan Melayu Muda (Young Malays Union or KMM) in Kuala Lumpur, marking it as British Malaya's first nationalist political organisation. The KMM championed Panji Melayu Raya, an ideal advocating the unification of British Malaya and the Dutch East Indies. Though part of the British Empire during World War I, Malaya experienced little combat, except for the sinking of the Russian cruiser Zhemchug by the German cruiser SMS Emden on 28 October 1914 in the Battle of Penang. World War II and the state of emergency '', the Malaysian national monument, is dedicated to those who fell during World War II and the Malayan Emergency. The British in Malaya were unprepared for the outbreak of the Pacific War in December 1941. During the 1930s, anticipating the rising threat of Japanese naval power, they had constructed a major naval base at Singapore but had not foreseen an invasion of Malaya from the north. The Royal Air Force had virtually no air capacity in the Far East. Consequently, the Japanese attacked from their bases in French Indo-China with impunity and—despite resistance from British, Australian, and Indian forces—the Japanese army overran Malaya in two months. Singapore, lacking landward defences, air cover, and a water supply, surrendered in February 1942. The Japanese also occupied British Borneo. However, the Japanese treated the Chinese as enemy aliens with harshness: during the Sook Ching, they killed up to 80,000 Chinese in Malaya and Singapore. The Chinese, led by the Malayan Communist Party (MCP), formed the backbone of the Malayan Peoples' Anti-Japanese Army (MPAJA), which, with British assistance, became the most effective resistance force in occupied Asia. The collapse of Malaya's export markets caused widespread unemployment, affecting all ethnic groups and increasing Japanese unpopularity. During the occupation, ethnic tensions intensified, and nationalism grew. Japan's surrender in August 1945 allowed British forces to reoccupy Malaya by September, beginning with Penang and Singapore. Many Malayans welcomed the British return in 1945, but the pre-war status quo was untenable, and the desire for independence strengthened. Britain, financially strained and led by the Labour government eager to withdraw forces from the East, faced new realities. However, most Malays focused on defending themselves against the MCP rather than demanding immediate independence from the British. In 1944, the British drew up plans for a Malayan Union, which aimed to unite the Federated and Unfederated Malay States, along with Penang and Malacca, into a single Crown colony that would progress towards independence. The Bornean territories and Singapore were excluded, as their inclusion was thought to complicate the union's formation. The British had opted for legalised racial equality, perceiving the Chinese and Indians as more loyal during the war than the Malays. The Malayan Emergency spanned 1948 to 1960 and involved a prolonged anti-insurgency campaign by Commonwealth troops in Malaya. The British employed a successful strategy, formalised in 1950 as the Briggs Plan under General Sir Harold Briggs, to isolate the MCP from its support base through economic and political concessions to the Chinese and by forcibly resettling more than 400,000 rural inhabitants, mostly Chinese squatters, into guarded "new villages"—effectively concentration camps—in "white areas" free of MCP influence. From 1949, British measures, including arrests and early relocations, began to disrupt the MCP's campaign, with significant weakening and recruitment declines following the Briggs Plan's implementation in 1950. Against this backdrop, independence for the Federation within the Commonwealth was granted on 31 August 1957, with Tunku Abdul Rahman as the first prime minister. ==Emergence of Malaysia==

Struggle for an independent Malaysia (Independence Square) in Kuala Lumpur, where Malaysians celebrate Independence Day on 31 August each year Chinese reaction against the MCP was shown by the formation of the Malayan Chinese Association (MCA) in 1949 as a vehicle for moderate Chinese political opinion. Its leader, Tan Cheng Lock, supported collaboration with UMNO to achieve Malayan independence through equal citizenship, while making sufficient concessions to Malay sensitivities to alleviate nationalist concerns. He formed a close collaboration with Tunku Abdul Rahman, the Chief Minister of Kedah and, from 1951, successor to Datuk Onn as leader of UMNO. Both leaders were determined to forge an agreement their communities could accept as the basis for a stable independent state. The UMNO-MCA alliance, which was later joined by the Malayan Indian Congress (MIC) to form the Alliance Party, won convincing victories in local and state elections in both Malay and Chinese areas between 1952 and 1955. After Joseph Stalin's death in 1953, a split emerged in the MCP leadership over the wisdom of continuing the armed struggle. Many MCP militants lost heart and returned home, and by the time Templer left Malaya in 1954, the Emergency appeared to be waning, although it would not officially end until 1960. Chin Peng led a resolute group that lingered in the inaccessible terrain along the Thai border for many years. During 1955 and 1956, UMNO, the MCA, and British colonial authorities negotiated a constitutional settlement based on the principle of equal citizenship for all races. In exchange, the MCA agreed that Malaya's head of state would be drawn from the ranks of the Malay rulers, that Malay would be the official language, and that Malay education and economic development would be promoted and subsidised. In effect, this meant that Malaya would be governed by the Malays, but the Chinese and Indians would have proportionate representation in the Cabinet and Parliament, would govern states where they formed the majority, and would enjoy protection of their economic positions. The difficult issue of who would control the education system was deferred until after independence. After the Japanese surrender, the Brooke family and the British North Borneo Company relinquished control of Sarawak and North Borneo respectively, and these became British Crown colonies. They were far less economically developed than Malaya, and their local political leaders were too weak to demand independence. Singapore, with its large Chinese majority, achieved autonomy in 1955, and in 1959 Lee Kuan Yew became prime minister. The Sultan of Brunei remained a British client in his oil-rich enclave. Between 1959 and 1962, the British government orchestrated complex negotiations between these local leaders and the Malayan government. On 24 April 1961, Lee Kuan Yew proposed the idea of forming Malaysia to Tunku Abdul Rahman during a meeting. Deputy Malayan Prime Minister Abdul Razak supported the idea of the new federation and worked to convince Abdul Rahman to back it. On 27 May 1961, Abdul Rahman proposed the idea of forming "Malaysia", which would consist of Brunei, Malaya, North Borneo, Sarawak, and Singapore, all of which, except Malaya, were still under British rule. It was stated that this would allow the central government to better control and combat communist activities, especially in Singapore. It was also feared that, if Singapore became independent, it would become a base for Chinese chauvinists to threaten Malayan sovereignty. The inclusion of British territories besides Singapore was intended to maintain an ethnic composition similar to that of Malaya, with the Malay and indigenous populations of the other territories balancing the Chinese majority in Singapore. Although Lee Kuan Yew supported the proposal, his opponents from the Singaporean Socialist Front (Barisan Sosialis) resisted it. In North Borneo, where there were no political parties, community representatives also expressed opposition. Although the Sultan of Brunei supported the merger, the Parti Rakyat Brunei opposed it. At the Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference in 1961, Abdul Rahman explained his proposal further to its opponents. In October 1961, he obtained agreement from the British government for the plan, provided that feedback was obtained from the communities involved in the merger. were formed to conduct a study in the British Borneo territories of Sarawak and Sabah to see whether the two were interested in the idea to form the Federation of Malaysia with Malaya and Singapore. The Cobbold Commission approved a merger with North Borneo and Sarawak; however, it was found that a substantial number of Bruneians opposed the merger. North Borneo drew up a list of points, referred to as the 20-point agreement, proposing terms for its inclusion in the new federation. Sarawak prepared a similar memorandum, known as the 18-point agreement. Some of the points in these agreements were incorporated into the eventual constitution; some were instead accepted orally. These memoranda are often cited by those who believe that Sarawak's and North Borneo's rights have eroded over time. A referendum was conducted in Singapore to gauge opinion, and 70% supported the merger with substantial autonomy granted to the state government. The Sultanate of Brunei withdrew from the planned merger due to opposition from segments of its population, as well as arguments over the payment of oil royalties and the status of the sultan in the planned merger. Additionally, the Parti Rakyat Brunei staged an armed revolt, which, though suppressed, was viewed as potentially destabilising to the new nation. After reviewing the Cobbold Commission's findings, the British government appointed the Lansdowne Commission to draft a constitution for Malaysia. The eventual constitution was essentially the same as the 1957 constitution, albeit with some rewording—for instance, giving recognition to the special position of the natives of the Borneo States. North Borneo, Sarawak, and Singapore were also granted some autonomy unavailable to the states of Malaya. After negotiations in July 1963, it was agreed that Malaysia would come into being on 31 August 1963, consisting of Malaya, North Borneo, Sarawak, and Singapore. The date was chosen to coincide with Malaya's independence day and the British granting self-rule to Sarawak and North Borneo. However, Indonesia and the Philippines strenuously objected to this development, with Indonesia claiming Malaysia represented a form of "neocolonialism" and the Philippines claiming North Borneo as its territory. Opposition from the Indonesian government, led by Sukarno, and attempts by the Sarawak United People's Party delayed the formation of Malaysia. Due to these factors, an eight-member UN team was formed to ascertain whether North Borneo and Sarawak truly wanted to join Malaysia. Malaysia formally came into being on 16 September 1963, consisting of Malaya, North Borneo, Sarawak, and Singapore. In 1963, the total population of Malaysia was about 8 million. Challenges of independence At the time of independence, Malaya had significant economic advantages. It was among the world's leading producers of three valuable commodities: rubber, tin, and palm oil, and a notable iron ore producer. These exports provided the Malayan government a substantial surplus for industrial development and infrastructure projects. Like other post-colonial developing nations in the 1950s and 1960s, Malaya (and later Malaysia) emphasized economic state planning, though UMNO was never a socialist party. The First and Second Malayan Plans (1956–1960 and 1961–1965, respectively) spurred economic growth through state investment in industry and infrastructure repair. The government aimed to reduce Malaya's reliance on commodity exports, recognizing that demand for natural rubber would decline as synthetic rubber production expanded. Indonesian President Sukarno, supported by the powerful Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI), viewed Malaysia as a "neocolonialist" plot against his country and backed a communist insurgency in Sarawak, primarily involving elements of the local Chinese community. Indonesian irregular forces infiltrated Sarawak and were contained by Malaysian and Commonwealth of Nations forces. This period of Konfrontasi (an economic, political, and military confrontation) lasted until the downfall of Sukarno in 1966. Racial strife by Lee Kuan Yew (top) for Singapore; Donald Stephens (centre) for North Borneo and Stephen Kalong Ningkan (bottom) for Sarawak. However, Singapore left the Federation less than two years after the merger due to racial issues. The Great Depression of the 1930s, followed by the Sino-Japanese War, ended Chinese emigration to Malaya. At the time of independence in 1957, Malays comprised 50% of the Federation of Malaya population, Chinese 38%, Indians 11%, and others 1%. This balance was altered by increasing the Chinese population through the inclusion of majority-Chinese Singapore, raising concerns among Malays. The most debated issues of independent Malaysia were education and the disparity of economic power among ethnic communities. The Malays were concerned about the wealth of the Chinese community, even after Singapore's expulsion in 1965. Malay political movements emerged, focused on addressing economic disparity. Since there was no effective opposition party, these issues were contested mainly within the coalition government, which won a strong majority of 74 out of 104 seats in the 1959 Malayan Parliament election. The two issues were related. The Chinese advantage in education helped maintain their economic dominance, which UMNO leaders were determined to end. The Federal Land Development Authority (FELDA) and other agencies enabled Malay smallholders to upgrade their production and increase their incomes. The state provided incentives and low-interest loans to help Malays start businesses and began favoring Malay companies in government tendering, prompting some Chinese-owned businesses to appoint Malay managers. Crisis of 1969 and communist insurgency The collaboration between the MCA and the MIC in these policies weakened their influence over the Chinese and Indian electorates. At the same time, the government's affirmative action policies of the 1950s and 1960s created a discontented class of educated but underemployed Malays. This led to the formation of a new party, the Malaysian People's Movement (Gerakan), in 1968. Gerakan was intentionally designed as a non-communal party, incorporating Malay trade unionists and intellectuals alongside Chinese and Indian leaders. Meanwhile, the Islamic Party of Malaysia (PAS), an Islamist party, and the Democratic Action Party (DAP), a democratic socialist party, gained growing support at the expense of UMNO and the MCA, respectively. In response, the government declared a state of emergency, and the National Operations Council, led by Deputy Prime Minister Abdul Razak Hussein, assumed power. In September 1970, Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman stepped down and was succeeded by Abdul Razak. In 1974, a new coalition government, the Barisan Nasional, was established to replace the Alliance party and include PAS, Gerakan, and other parties. In 1977, PAS was expelled from BN after opposing federal intervention in the Kelantan Emergency, triggered by a political impasse. On 16 July 1981, Mahathir Mohamad became Prime Minister, serving for 22 years, the longest tenure in Malaysian history. During his administration, Malaysia experienced rapid economic growth and implemented numerous large-scale development projects. Key policies, including the NEP, transformed Malaysia’s economy and society, maintaining a delicate ethno-political balance through economic growth and policies promoting equitable participation among all races. ==Modern Malaysia==

, a blend of old and new In 1970, three-quarters of Malaysians living below the poverty line were ethnic Malays, most of whom were rural workers largely excluded from Malaysia's modern economy. The government introduced the New Economic Policy (NEP) in 1971 to address these disparities, with a series of four five-year plans scheduled from 1971 to 1990. The NEP aimed to achieve two main goals: reducing poverty, especially in rural areas, and addressing the economic imbalance by eliminating the association between race and economic prosperity. To increase Malay participation in the modern economy, the government established several state-owned enterprises and agencies, including Perbadanan Nasional Berhad (PERNAS), Petroliam Nasional Berhad (PETRONAS), and the Heavy Industries Corporation of Malaysia (HICOM). These entities not only directly employed Malay workers but also invested in growing sectors of the economy, creating new technical and administrative roles often allocated to Malays. Consequently, Malay equity in the economy increased from 1.5% in 1969 to 20.3% by 1990. Mahathir administration was the leading force in making Malaysia into a major industrial power. Mahathir Mohamad was sworn in as the fourth Prime Minister of Malaysia on 16 July 1981. One of his initial actions was to release 21 detainees held under the Internal Security Act (ISA). During his early tenure, Mahathir implemented an assertive economic strategy, exemplified by the Guthrie Dawn Raid on 7 September 1981. This strategic economic maneuver, executed by Permodalan Nasional Berhad (PNB), enabled Malaysia to reclaim control of Guthrie Corporation, a British-owned plantation company, by rapidly acquiring its shares on the London Stock Exchange. The operation transferred approximately 200,000 acres of agricultural land into Malaysian ownership, aligning with the New Economic Policy (NEP) objectives of increasing Bumiputera equity. However, the raid strained diplomatic relations with the United Kingdom. In response, British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher tightened stock market regulations, while Malaysia introduced the "Buy British Last" policy in October 1981, prioritizing non-British suppliers in government procurements. To promote economic development and reduce dependence on Western models, Mahathir introduced the Look East Policy in 1982, encouraging Malaysians to adopt the work ethics, industrial strategies, and economic practices of Japan and South Korea. Alongside this policy, the government emphasized industrialisation to diversify the economy away from agriculture. The establishment of the Heavy Industries Corporation of Malaysia (HICOM) in 1983 led to the launch of Malaysia's first national car, the Proton Saga, in 1985 by Proton, Malaysia's automotive company. The government introduced its privatisation policy in the early 1980s to improve efficiency, reduce government expenditure, and encourage private-sector growth. Privatization efforts spanned key sectors, including telecommunications, utilities, and transportation, attracting foreign investment and supporting Malaysia's economic growth. This program complemented Mahathir's broader focus on industrialization and infrastructure, establishing a foundation for major development projects in later years. Mahathir sought to redefine the balance of power between the monarchy and Parliament through a constitutional amendment in 1983. This amendment required the Yang di-Pertuan Agong to assent to any bill within 15 days of its passage by Parliament; otherwise, it would automatically become law. Additionally, it proposed transferring the power to declare a state of emergency from the Agong to the prime minister. Initially supported by the Agong at the time, the proposal was later met with hesitation from him and the Sultans, who baulked at its implications for state-level legislation. A public standoff ensued, with Mahathir organizing rallies to gather public support. The crisis concluded with a compromise, retaining the Agong's emergency powers but allowing Parliament to override a veto by re-passing the bill. Mahathir sought to appeal to religious voters by establishing institutions such as the International Islamic University of Malaysia (IIUM) to promote Islamic education within a framework overseen by the government. Mahathir's government also employed repressive measures against more extreme exponents of Islamism. In 1985, the Memali Incident occurred, resulting in a confrontation between police and followers of Islamist preacher Ibrahim Mahmud, known as Ibrahim Libya, in Kampung Memali, Baling, Kedah. This clash led to 18 deaths, including four police officers. Al-Arqam, a religious sect, was banned in 1994, and its leader, Ashaari Mohammad, was arrested under the Internal Security Act (ISA) due to the movement's deviation from Islamic principles and its perceived potential as a political threat. Following rising racial tensions and political unrest, Operasi Lalang was launched in 1987. The government detained 119 individuals, including opposition politicians, activists, and intellectuals, under the Internal Security Act (ISA). These detentions, carried out without trial, were criticized by human rights groups. In 1988, the High Court declared UMNO to be an unlawful society due to unregistered branches that violated the Societies Act 1966. Mahathir also worked to resolve the long-standing insurgency by the Malayan Communist Party (MCP). Building on Malaysia's bilateral relations with China established in 1974, the Malaysian government encouraged Chinese leaders, including Deng Xiaoping, to influence the MCP to lay down their arms. By 1988, the MCP, weakened by diminishing support and the collapse of the communist bloc, agreed to peace negotiations mediated by Thailand. The talks culminated in the Hat Yai Peace Accord, signed on 2 December 1989, which required the MCP to cease militant activities, disband armed units, and pledge loyalty to the Yang di-Pertuan Agong. The conclusion of the New Economic Policy (NEP) in 1990 led Mahathir to introduce Vision 2020, aiming to transform Malaysia into a fully developed nation by the year 2020. Achieving this objective required an average economic growth rate of seven percent per annum. The New Economic Policy (NEP) was succeeded by the National Development Policy (NDP) in 1991, which expanded certain government programs to include non-Bumiputera ethnic groups. By 1995, the NDP had contributed to poverty reduction, with fewer than nine percent of Malaysians living in poverty, and it had helped to narrow income inequality. The administration also reduced corporate taxes and liberalized financial regulations, attracting foreign investment and boosting economic growth rates to over nine percent annually until 1997. Mahathir's second constitutional amendment in 1993 further curtailed royal privileges by removing the legal immunity of the royal family, allowing them to be prosecuted in a special court. This amendment reinforced the government's stance that all citizens, including royalty, should be subject to the rule of law. Throughout the 1990s, Mahathir prioritized large-scale infrastructure projects. Among them was the development of the Multimedia Super Corridor, aimed at establishing Malaysia as a center for information technology. Other key projects included the creation of Putrajaya as the administrative capital and the establishment of the Formula One Grand Prix in Sepang. Among the more controversial was the Bakun Dam in Sarawak, a hydroelectric project intended to supply electricity across the South China Sea to Peninsular Malaysia. However, its construction was halted during the 1997 Asian financial crisis. in Kuala Lumpur in Kuala Lumpur was the tallest building in Southeast Asia.The 1997 Asian financial crisis significantly impacted Malaysia, with the Malaysian ringgit depreciating, foreign investment declining, and the stock market index dropping by over 75%. Initially following International Monetary Fund (IMF) recommendations, the government implemented spending cuts and raised interest rates, exacerbating economic strain. In 1998, Mahathir shifted policies by increasing government spending and pegging the ringgit to the US dollar, allowing Malaysia to recover faster than some neighboring countries. The year 1998 also marked the dismissal of Deputy Prime Minister Anwar Ibrahim by Mahathir, leading to the Reformasi movement, which advocated for political reform and an end to corruption. Anwar's subsequent arrest and trial on charges of sodomy attracted widespread attention and criticism from international human rights organizations and fueled mass protests in Kuala Lumpur. The Reformasi movement led to the formation of the National Justice Party (KeADILan), the predecessor to the People's Justice Party (PKR), in 1999, strengthening the opposition. The government responded with arrests and media restrictions, including curbs on PAS's Harakah newspaper. In the 1999 Malaysian general election, Barisan Nasional retained a two-thirds majority, though PAS and KeADILan made gains under the Alternative Front (BA) coalition. In February 2003, Malaysia hosted the 13th Non-Aligned Movement Summit, where Mahathir condemned the United States' plans to invade Iraq as a violation of international law and urged NAM members to oppose unilateral military actions. Although he had announced his retirement in June 2002 and named Abdullah Ahmad Badawi as his successor, Mahathir officially stepped down in October 2003 after over 22 years in office, making him the world's longest-serving elected leader at the time. Abdullah administration Abdullah Ahmad Badawi was sworn in as Malaysia's fifth prime minister on 31 October 2003, beginning his term with a pledge to combat corruption by strengthening anti-corruption agencies, expanding public channels for reporting corruption, and improving transparency in the award of government contracts. He promoted Islam Hadhari, an approach to Islam emphasizing compatibility between Islamic principles and economic and technological development. Aligning with this approach, his administration introduced the j-QAF programme in 2004 to strengthen Islamic education in schools. In the same year, he also introduced the National Integrity Plan and Malaysian Integrity Institute to foster ethical governance. Additionally, Abdullah's government sought to improve access to higher education and bolster Malaysia's standing as a regional educational hub, expanding funding and infrastructure for tertiary education. Following the 2004 general election, Abdullah led the Barisan Nasional (BN) coalition to a major victory, securing over 90% of parliamentary seats. Later that year, the Indian Ocean tsunami affected parts of Malaysia, particularly Penang and Kedah, prompting Abdullah's administration to coordinate relief efforts and establish a tsunami warning system to improve disaster preparedness. In 2005, Malaysia hosted the inaugural East Asia Summit under Abdullah's leadership, aiming to enhance cooperation among Southeast Asian nations and major global powers. in 2005, led by Prime Minister Abdullah Ahmad Badawi, to promote regional cooperation.To advance economic development, Abdullah launched the Special Task Force to Facilitate Business (PEMUDAH) in 2007 to streamline business processes and reduce bureaucratic inefficiencies. Between 2006 and 2008, his administration introduced five economic corridors—Iskandar Malaysia, Northern Corridor Economic Region (NCER), East Coast Economic Region (ECER), Sabah Development Corridor (SDC), and Sarawak Corridor of Renewable Energy (SCORE)—to drive regional development. The government sought to transition into a value-chain economy while maintaining its manufacturing base by revitalizing Malaysia's agriculture sector to enhance food security, incorporating modern agrotechnology and implementing a national food security plan in 2008 amid the world food price crisis at the time. Abdullah also faced criticism over rising petrol and electricity costs linked to subsidy restructuring, as these changes were seen as potentially undermining Malaysia's traditional advantage as an exporter. Sheikh Muszaphar Shukor became Malaysia's first astronaut on 10 October 2007, travelling aboard the Russian Soyuz TMA-11, a milestone for Malaysia's space exploration program. That same year, two major anti-government rallies took place. The first Bersih Rally on 10 November in Kuala Lumpur called for electoral reform amid corruption allegations and criticisms of a system favouring Barisan Nasional. Later that month, on 25 November, the HINDRAF rally organised by the Hindu Rights Action Force (HINDRAF) protested perceived ethnic discrimination policies. The government subsequently banned HINDRAF in October 2008, labelling it a security threat. that was held in Kuala Lumpur The 2008 financial crisis led to reduced demand for Malaysian exports such as electronics, palm oil, and rubber, causing the country's GDP growth to slow significantly and contract in early 2009 before beginning a gradual recovery. To mitigate the impact, Abdullah's government introduced two stimulus packages totalling approximately RM67 billion, supporting domestic spending, infrastructure projects, and vulnerable sectors. These measures, alongside Malaysia's diversified economy, contributed to a relatively swift recovery. In 2009, his administration established the Malaysian Anti-Corruption Commission (MACC), replacing the Anti-Corruption Agency (ACA), to enhance anti-corruption efforts. That same year, his administration also established the Judicial Appointments Commission (JAC) to improve transparency in judicial appointments, strengthening judicial independence. In the 2008 general election, Barisan Nasional lost its two-thirds majority for the first time since 1969, a result of the political tsunami brought about by the 2008 Malaysian Opposition Wave, which signaled a significant decline in public support. Mounting criticism over unmet anti-corruption promises and perceived ineffective leadership led Abdullah to announce his resignation in October 2008, with his departure finalised in April 2009 when Najib Razak took office as his successor. Najib administration Najib Razak was sworn in as Malaysia's sixth prime minister on 3 April 2009. Early in his tenure, he introduced the 1Malaysia campaign, a national unity initiative aimed at fostering ethnic harmony, service efficiency, and equitable opportunities. The concept expanded into a public service brand covering various social and economic policies aimed at unifying Malaysia's multicultural society. On 15 September 2011, Najib announced plans to repeal the Internal Security Act 1960 (ISA), which had been criticised for allowing indefinite detention without trial. It was replaced by the Security Offences (Special Measures) Act 2012 (SOSMA), which came into effect on 31 July 2012. However, critics argued that SOSMA was misused to silence dissenting voices, with several activists detained under the law. In early February 2013, an incursion occurred in Lahad Datu when hundreds of militants, some armed, arrived by boats in Lahad Datu District, Sabah, Malaysia, from Simunul Island, Tawi-Tawi, in the southern Philippines. The group was sent by Jamalul Kiram III, a claimant to the throne of the Sultanate of Sulu. In response, Malaysian security forces launched a major operation to repel the militants, resulting in a decisive Malaysian victory that concluded the conflict by late March 2013. Following this, the Eastern Sabah Security Command (ESSCOM) was established to enhance security along Sabah's eastern coast. In the 2013 general election, Najib led the Barisan Nasional (BN) coalition to victory, retaining a majority in Parliament. However, the election was marred by allegations of electoral irregularities, including accusations of gerrymandering and alleged misuse of government resources. This led to widespread public protests, which demanded electoral reform. On 8 March 2014, Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 disappeared en route from Kuala Lumpur to Beijing, leading to one of the largest and most costly search efforts in aviation history. Four months later, on 17 July 2014, Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 was shot down by a surface-to-air missile over Eastern Ukraine while flying over territory controlled by Russian-backed militants, resulting in the deaths of all 298 passengers and crew on board. tainted the tenure of Prime Minister, Najib Razak. On 1 April 2015, Najib's administration introduced a controversial 6% Goods and Services Tax (GST) on most goods and services to expand Malaysia's tax base. The GST was widely unpopular, with many Malaysians expressing concerns over rising living costs. Later that year, Najib's administration was engulfed in scandal when Najib and other officials were implicated in a multibillion-dollar embezzlement and money-laundering scheme involving 1Malaysia Development Berhad (1MDB), a state-owned investment fund allegedly masterminded by Low Taek Jho. This triggered widespread calls and protests from Malaysians, including opposition parties, demanding Najib's resignation. These protests culminated in the Malaysian Citizens' Declaration, a declaration from a coalition of political and civil leaders calling for Najib's removal from office. protesters marching the streets of Kuala Lumpur peacefully before the police confronted them. From 2011 to 2016, the Bersih movement held several large rallies calling for electoral reform, transparency, and accountability in governance. The Najib administration's response included arrests of activists and restrictions on media coverage, which garnered both domestic and international scrutiny. Amid growing dissent, Najib removed his then-deputy, Muhyiddin Yassin, suspended several newspapers, and enacted the National Security Council Act 2016, granting unprecedented powers to the prime minister. Additionally, living costs surged due to subsidy cuts, and the Malaysian ringgit experienced a sharp decline. In 2017, diplomatic tensions flared between Malaysia and North Korea after the assassination of Kim Jong-nam in Malaysia, an incident that sparked a major diplomatic row and brought international media attention. Najib's tenure ended after the 2018 general election, in which Barisan Nasional lost its parliamentary majority for the first time in Malaysia's history. Second Mahathir administration Mahathir Mohamad was sworn in as the seventh Prime Minister after winning the election on 10 May 2018. A number of issues contributed to Najib Razak's defeat, including the ongoing 1Malaysia Development Berhad (1MDB) scandal, the 6% Goods and Services Tax, and the rising cost of living. Mahathir promised to "restore the rule of law" and conduct elaborate and transparent investigations into the 1Malaysia Development Berhad scandal. Anwar Ibrahim was given a full royal pardon and was released from prison on 16 May 2018. He was designated to take over the reins from Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad as planned and agreed by the coalition before GE14. in a meeting with Mahathir in the Malacanang Palace in 2019 The unpopular tax was reduced to 0% on 1 June 2018. The government under Mahathir tabled the first reading Bill to repeal GST in Parliament on 31 July 2018. GST was successfully replaced with Sales Tax and Service Tax starting 1 September 2018. Mahathir's administration promised to review all Belt and Road Initiative projects in Malaysia that were initiated by the previous government. He characterised these as "unequal treaties" and said some were linked to misappropriated funds from the 1MDB scandal. The government suspended work on the East Coast Rail Link and continued it after terms had been renegotiated. Mahathir cancelled approximately $2.8 billion worth of deals with China Petroleum Pipeline Bureau, stating that Malaysia would not be able to repay its obligations to China. Mahathir was supportive of the 2018–19 Korean peace process and announced that Malaysia would reopen its embassy in North Korea and resume relations. On 28 September 2018, Mahathir addressed the United Nations General Assembly, stating that his government would promise to ratify the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (ICERD). However, after weeks of receiving racially and religiously charged demonstrations against the convention, particularly from Bumiputras, the Pakatan Harapan government chose not to accede to the ICERD on 23 November 2018. Mahathir announced the Shared Prosperity Vision 2030 in October 2019, which aimed to increase the incomes of all ethnic groups, focus more on the technology sector, and for Malaysia to become a high-income country by 2030. Malaysia's freedom of the press improved slightly under Mahathir's tenure, and the country's rank rose in the Press Freedom Index. Political infighting within the Pakatan Harapan coalition, as well as the uncertainty of the date of the transition of power to his designated successor, Anwar Ibrahim, soon culminated in a political crisis known as the Sheraton Move in February 2020. Muhyiddin administration and its surroundings in Penang were deserted on 22 March 2020 during the Malaysian Movement Control Order to combat the COVID-19 pandemic. On 1 March 2020, a week after the country was thrown into a political crisis, Muhyiddin Yassin was appointed as the eighth Prime Minister by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong, following the abrupt resignation of Mahathir Mohamad. The fallen government was replaced by the new Perikatan Nasional (PN) coalition government, led by BERSATU leader Muhyiddin. During his administration, COVID-19 spread throughout the nation. In response, Muhyiddin implemented the Malaysian movement control order (MCO) on 18 March 2020. On 28 July 2020, the High Court convicted former Prime Minister Najib Razak of abuse of power, money laundering and criminal breach of trust, becoming the first Prime Minister of Malaysia to be convicted of corruption. After failing several appeals, he entered Kajang Prison on August 23, 2022, to serve his sentence. In mid-January 2021, the Yang di-Pertuan Agong declared a national state of emergency until at least 1 August in response to the COVID-19 crisis and political infighting. Parliament and elections were suspended while the Malaysian government was empowered to introduce laws without approval. Muhyiddin commenced the country's vaccination programme against COVID-19 in late February 2021. On 19 March 2021, North Korea announced the severance of diplomatic ties with Malaysia, after the Kuala Lumpur High Court rejected North Korean businessman Mun Chol Myong's appeal from extradition to the United States. Muhyiddin officially resigned as prime minister on August 16, 2021, after losing the majority in parliament support due to the country's political crisis, as well as calls for his resignation due to economic stagnation and the government's failure to prevent COVID-19 infections and deaths. He was afterwards appointed back as caretaker prime minister by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong until a replacement can be selected. Ismail Sabri administration Ismail Sabri Yaakob was sworn in as the ninth Prime Minister on August 21, 2021. During his inaugural speech as prime minister on 22 August 2021, Ismail Sabri introduced the Keluarga Malaysia idea. During his tenure, he lifted the Movement Control Order (MCO) following the expansion of the vaccination programme and oversaw the Twelfth Malaysia Plan. The Constitution (Amendment) Act 2022 was passed, restoring Sabah and Sarawak as equal partners to Peninsular Malaysia per the Malaysia Agreement of 1963, effective from 11 February 2022. Later in the same year, a constitutional amendment prohibiting members of parliament from switching political parties was also passed. Several UMNO lawmakers called for a snap election before the end of 2022 to resolve ongoing infighting in the party and obtain a stronger mandate. This led to an earlier general election in November 2022, which resulted in a hung parliament, the first federal election to have such a result in the nation's history. He launched the Malaysia Madani concept as a national policy on January 19, 2023, in Putrajaya which replaced the Keluarga Malaysia concept from the previous administration of Ismail Sabri Yaakob. with Russian President Vladimir Putin at the Eastern Economic Forum in Primorsky Krai, Russia, 4 September 2024 On June 18, 2024, Anwar announced Malaysia's intention to join BRICS, emphasizing that this decision would not impact domestic politics. Malaysia officially submitted its application in July 2024. Anwar attended the 9th Eastern Economic Forum in Vladivostok, Russia, in September, where Russian President Vladimir Putin invited Malaysia to the upcoming BRICS Summit. On October 24, 2024, Malaysia, represented by Economy Minister Rafizi Ramli, attended the 16th BRICS Summit and formally attained BRICS partner country status on January 1, 2025, enhancing its economic and trade collaborations with BRICS nations. In April 2025, Malaysia hosted Chinese President Xi Jinping for a state visit, his first to the country in 12 years. The two nations signed 31 agreements across sectors such as trade, infrastructure, technology, and cultural exchange, and issued a joint declaration to strengthen bilateral relations. ==See also==