Abram Hoffer

Hoffer was born in the small Jewish settlement of Sonnenfeld in southern Saskatchewan, Canada, in 1917, the last of four children and the son of Israel Hoffer. Originally interested in agriculture, Hoffer earned both a bachelor's He remained the Director of Psychiatric Research until entering private practice in 1967. Critical of psychiatry for its emphasis on psychosomatic psychoanalysis and for what he considered a lack of adequate definition and measurement, Hoffer felt that biochemistry and human physiology may be used instead. He hypothesised that people with schizophrenia may lack the ability to remove the hallucinogenic catecholamine metabolite adrenochrome from their brains. Hoffer thought niacin could be used as a methyl acceptor to prevent the conversion of noradrenaline into adrenaline and that Vitamin C could be used to prevent the oxidation of Adrenaline to Adrenochrome. Hoffer called his theory the "adrenochrome hypothesis". In 1967, Hoffer resigned some of his academic and administrative positions, entered into private psychiatric practice in Saskatoon, Saskatchewan and created the Journal of Schizophrenia (renamed the Journal of Orthomolecular Medicine in 1986). Hoffer used the journal to publish articles on what he called "nutritional psychiatry", later orthomolecular psychiatry, claiming his ideas were consistently rejected by mainstream journals because they were unacceptable to the medical establishment. In 1976, Hoffer relocated to Victoria, British Columbia and continued with his private psychiatric practice until his retirement in 2005. In 1994, Hoffer founded the International Society for Orthomolecular Medicine, holding its inaugural in Vancouver in April of the same year. Hoffer continued to provide nutritional consultations and served as editor of the Journal of Orthomolecular Medicine. Hoffer died at the age of 91 on May 27, 2009, in Victoria, British Columbia, Canada. His remains were buried in the Jewish Cemetery of Victoria. ==Research==

Working in Saskatchewan with Humphry Osmond (who coined the term "psychedelic"), Hoffer and other scientists sought to find medicinal uses for hallucinogenic drugs. Part of the research involved Hoffer, Osmond and their wives consuming LSD in an effort to become better acquainted with, and better understand its effects, later joined by other experimenters and their wives. Their work began attracting notoriety within professional, provincial and federal and political circles, and they were courted by the emerging movement to restrict peyote as well as Native American groups that used the substance in religious ceremonies. Hoffer, Osmond and others treated alcoholics with LSD. Canadian scientists reported a fifty percent success rate in one study, although Hoffer speculated that it was more likely the psychedelic experience of LSD, rather than simulated delirium tremens, that convinced the alcoholics to stop drinking. While working at the Regina General Hospital in the 1950s, Hoffer and James Stephen examined the effects of large doses of niacin on various diseases, including schizophrenia; Hoffer theorized that adrenalin, when oxidized to adrenochrome was an endogenous neurotoxin that could cause schizophrenia. At the same time, another Canadian working in Saskatoon, pathologist Rudolf Altschul, was exploring the use of high doses of niacin to lower cholesterol in rabbits and patients with degenerative vascular disease. The three combined their work, and in 1955 produced a paper entitled "Influence of nicotinic acid on serum cholesterol in man." The paper summarized their research showing high-dose niacin significantly lowered cholesterol in both high cholesterol patients as well as low cholesterol control subjects. The results were replicated by researchers at the Mayo Clinic and in Germany the following year. High-dose niacin has since become a treatment option for individuals with high blood cholesterol and related blood lipid abnormalities. At such high doses niacin acts like a drug rather than a vitamin and may have side effects of intense flushing of the face and torso and, rarely, liver toxicity. ==Controversy==

Hoffer's claims regarding schizophrenia and his theories of holistic orthomolecular medicine have been criticized by the mainstream of psychiatry. In 1973, the American Psychiatric Association reported methodological flaws in Hoffer's work on niacin as a schizophrenia treatment and referred to follow-up studies that did not confirm any benefits of the treatment, prompting at least two responses. Multiple additional studies in the United States, Canada, and Australia similarly failed to find benefits of megavitamin therapy to treat schizophrenia. The term "orthomolecular" was labeled a misnomer as early as 1973. ==Publications==

• Chemical Basis of Clinical Psychiatry, with Humphry Osmond. Springfield, IL: Thomas, 1960. . • Niacin Therapy in Psychiatry. Springfield, IL: Thomas, 1962. . • How to Live With Schizophrenia. New Hyde Park, NY: University Books, 1966. • New Hope for Alcoholics. Hyde Park, NY: University Books, 1966. • • Hoffer-Osmond Diagnostic Test, with Humphry Osmond and Kelm H. Tuscaloosa, AL: Behavior Science Press, 1975. • Megavitamin Therapy: In Reply to the American Psychiatric Association Task Force Report on Megavitamins and Orthomolecular Psychiatry. Regina, Saskatchewan: Canadian Schizophrenia Foundation, 1976. • Nutrients to Age Without Senility, with Morton Walker and Roger J. Williams. Keats Pub, Inc., 1980. . • Orthomolecular medicine for physicians. McGraw-Hill Trade, 1989. . • How to Live with Schizophrenia. Carol Publishing Group, 1992. . • ''Hoffer's Laws of Natural Nutrition: A Guide to Eating Well for Pure Health.'' Quarry Press, 1996. . • Vitamin B-3 and Schizophrenia: Discovery, Recovery, Controversy. Quarry Press, 1996. . • • Orthomolecular Treatment for Schizophrenia, McGraw-Hill Education, 1999. . • ''Dr. Hoffer's ABC of Natural Nutrition for Children: With Learning Disabilities, Behavioral Disorders, and Mental State Dysfunctions,'' Quarry Press, 1999. . • Healing Cancer: Complementary Vitamin & Drug Treatments. CCNM Press, 2004. . • ''User's Guide to Natural Therapies for Cancer Prevention & Control: Learn How Diet and Supplements Can Help Prevent and Treat Cancer.'' Basic Health Publications, Inc., 2004. . • Naturopathic Nutrition, with Jonathan Prousky. Canadian College of Naturopathic Medicine Press, 2006. . • Feel Better, Live Longer with Vitamin B-3: Nutrient Deficiency and Dependency, with Harold D. Foster. CCNM Press, 2007. . • Orthomolecular Medicine For Everyone, with Andrew W. Saul. Laguna Beach, CA: Basic Health, 2008. . • The Vitamin Cure for Alcoholism: Orthomolecular Treatment of Addictions. Basic Health Publications, Inc., 2009. . • Psychiatry Yesterday (1950) and Today (2007): From Despair to Hope with Orthomolecular Psychiatry. Trafford Publishing, 2009. . • Hospitals and Health: Your Orthomolecular Guide to a Shorter, Safer Hospital Stay, with Andrew W. Saul and Steve Hickey. Basic Health Publications, Inc., 2010. . • Healing Schizophrenia: Complementary Vitamin & Drug Treatments (Naturopathic Healing Series, Professional Edition). CCNM Press, 2011. . • Niacin: The Real Story: Learn about the Wonderful Healing Properties of Niacin, with Andrew W. Saul and Harold D. Foster. Basic Health Publications, Inc., 2015. . • ''Healing Children's Attention and Behavior Disorders: Complementary Nutritional & Psychological Treatments.'' CCNM Press, 2015. . ==Further reading==