African spurred tortoise

In 1779 the English illustrator John Frederick Miller included a hand-coloured plate of the African spurred tortoise in his Icones animalium et plantarum and coined the binomial name Testudo sulcata. Its specific name sulcata is from the Latin word sulcus meaning "furrow" and refers to the furrows on the tortoise's scales. The species was subsequently given other binomial names. There are no recognized subspecies despite there being two separate populations, one in Western Africa and the other in Eastern Africa. There are also three different, yet similar, haplotypes. One haplotype is found in and closely around Sudan, another is found in the western portion of their range, and the last haplotype is found in Senegal, Mali, and Sudan. ==Range and habitat==

The African spurred tortoise is native to the Sahara Desert and the Sahel, a transitional ecoregion of semiarid grasslands, savannas, and thorn shrublands found in the countries of Burkina Faso, the Central African Republic, Chad, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Mali, Mauritania, Nigeria, Senegal, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Yemen and possibly in Somalia, Algeria, Benin, and Cameroon. It is possibly extirpated from Djibouti and Togo. They are found on hills, stable dunes, and flat areas with shrubs and high grass. They also like to settle in areas with interrupted streams or rivers. This is known as aestivation. In the wild, they may burrow very deep, up to 15 m deep and 30 m long. Plants such as grasses and succulents grow around their burrows if kept moist, and in nature they continue to grow for the tortoise to eat if the soil is replenished with its feces. Sulcata tortoises found in the Sudanese part of their range may reach significantly greater size at maturity than those found in other regions. ==Size and lifespan==

C. sulcata is the largest species of tortoise in Africa and is also third-largest species of tortoise in the world. The species is the largest of the mainland tortoises. Despite being the largest tortoise in Africa, hatchlings measure merely about 44 millimeters and weigh around 40 grams. ==Diet==

Sulcata tortoises are mostly herbivores. Their overall diet should be high in fiber and very low in protein. Too much protein will lead to the tortoise growing too fast, which can result in metabolic bone disease, a condition that is characterized by distortion of the skeleton and weakened bone structure and can lead to lameness, lower quality of life, and/or shortened lifespan. Flowers and other plants including cactus pads can be consumed. In the wild, they have been observed to also eat plants and algae off the surface of the water. African spurred tortoises are also capable of eating various vegetables such as endive, dandelion greens, and dark leafy greens. Despite being herbivores, they will occasionally eat the carcasses of dead animals. They mostly eat dead goats and zebras that have been pushed downstream during the wet season on the rivers and streams next to which tortoises settle. If a human settlement is nearby they will also feed on refuse. ==Breeding==

Male selection Copulation takes place right after the rainy season, during the months from September through November with breeding actions occur in the morning. Male C. sulcata are extremely territorial. Males combat each other for breeding rights with the females and are vocal during copulation. Larger males tend to always win sexual combat. Female nesting Sixty days after mating, the female begins to roam looking for suitable nesting sites. For five to 15 days, four or five nests may be excavated before she selects the perfect location in which the eggs will be laid. Females tend to lay around two to three clutches of eggs with each clutch containing 14 to 40 eggs. Loose soil is kicked out of the depression, and the female may frequently urinate into the depression. Once it reaches about 2 feet (60 cm) in diameter and 3–6 in (7–14 cm) deep, a further depression, measuring some 8 in (20 cm) across and in depth, will be dug out towards the back of the original depression. The work of digging the nest may take up to five hours; the speed with which it is dug seems to be dependent upon the relative hardness of the ground. It usually takes place when the ambient air temperature is at least 78 °F (27 °C). Once the nest is dug, the female begins to lay an egg every three minutes. Clutches may contain 15–30 or more eggs. After the eggs are laid, the female fills in the nest, taking an hour or more to fully cover them all. Incubation should be 86 to 88 °F, and will take from 90 to 120 days. == Conservation status and efforts ==

Status C. sulcata is currently ranked as an endangered species. Studies suggest that African spurred tortoises exist in approximately 16.7% of the area where they had previously been found. These studies also show an average of 1–5 tortoises per site canvassed which indicates a rapid decline of the species. They also face threats from the pet trade as they are over harvested from their natural environment. Other threats that the species face are habitat loss due to climate change and predators which hunt the tortoises or their eggs. This means that the tortoises are able to easily to adapt back into their native savanna environments from domestic environment. == Life in captivity ==

Behavior African spurred tortoises are passive and docile pets. They are almost never aggressive and barely ever show territorial behavior. This docile behavior is complemented by their slow speed and silence. Despite their docile attitude, the tortoises should not be handled often as handling will cause stress, which can lead to health problems and premature death. Being off the ground or constantly carried can cause them to become stressed. Stressed tortoises may urinate or defecate, try to get away, hide in the shell, and hiss. They are also very curious and can end up stuck on their backs, needing help getting flipped back over. African Spurred Tortoises have a lifespan of around 70 years, which means that they are a long term commitment. Certain vegetables can lead to serious medical issues. Parsley, broccoli, kale and spinach should be excluded from their diets entirely, as they are too high in calcium oxalate. ==References==