in Israel with the pressing area in the center and the collection vat off to the bottom left The many biblical references to wine are both positive and negative, real and symbolic, descriptive and didactic. Both archaeological evidence and written records indicate the significant cultivation of grapes in ancient Israel and the popularity of wine-drinking. The production capacity apparent from archaeological remains and the frequent biblical references to wine suggest that it was the
principal alcoholic beverage of the ancient Israelites. In biblical narratives, the fermentation of fruit into wine holds significance, with grapes and wine often linked to both celebration and cautionary tales of sin and temptation, reminiscent of the concept of the
forbidden fruit.
Drunkenness ''
Easton's Bible Dictionary'' states: "The sin of
drunkenness ... must have been not uncommon in the olden times, for it is mentioned either metaphorically or literally more than seventy times in the Bible", though some suggest it was a "vice of the wealthy rather than of the poor". Biblical interpreters generally agree that the Hebrew and Christian scriptures condemn ordinary drunkenness as a serious spiritual and moral failing in passages such as these (all from the
New International Version): • f: "Do not mix with winebibbers, or gluttonous eaters of meat, for drunkards and gluttons become poor, and drowsiness clothes them in rags." •
Isaiah f: "Woe to those who rise early in the morning to run after their drinks, who stay up late at night till they are inflamed with wine. They have harps and lyres at their banquets, tambourines and flutes and wine, but they have no regard for the deeds of the Tetragrammaton|, no respect for the work of his hands." •
Galatians : "The acts of the sinful nature are obvious: ... drunkenness, orgies, and the like. I warn you, as I did before, that those who live like this will not inherit the kingdom of God." •
Ephesians : "Do not get drunk on wine, which leads to debauchery. Instead, be filled with the Spirit." '' by
Giovanni Bellini, c. 1515 The consequences of the drunkenness of Noah and
Lot "were intended to serve as examples of the dangers and repulsiveness of intemperance." Some argue that the latter instructions regarding the perishing should be understood as sarcasm when compared with the preceding verses, while others contend the beer and wine are intended as a cordial to raise the spirits of the perishing, Moreover, some suggest that the wine ("vinegar" or "sour wine") which Roman soldiers offered to Jesus at his
crucifixion was also intended as an anesthetic.
Sacrifices and feasts The Hebrew scriptures prescribed wine for use in festal celebrations and
sacrificial rituals. and the king had his own private stores. The banquet hall was called a "house of wine," and wine was used as the usual drink at most secular and religious feasts, including feasts of celebration and hospitality, tithe celebrations,
Jewish holidays such as
Passover, and at burials. , 1685. Jesus holds a chalice containing wine. The first miracle of Jesus' public ministry was transforming water into fine wine at a wedding in Cana. Jesus instituted the Eucharist at the
Last Supper, which took place at a Passover celebration, and set apart the bread and "fruit of the vine" that were present there as symbols of the
New Covenant.
Saint Paul later chides the
Corinthians for becoming drunk on wine served at their celebrations of the Lord's Supper.
Bringer of joy The Bible also speaks of wine in general terms as a bringer and concomitant of joy, particularly in the context of nourishment and feasting, e.g.: • Psalm 104:14–15: "[The ] makes ... plants for man to cultivate – bringing forth food from the earth: wine that gladdens the heart of man, oil to make his face shine, and bread that sustains his heart."
Gregory of Nyssa (died 395) made a distinction between
types of wine (intoxicating and non-intoxicating) – "not that wine which produces drunkenness, plots against the senses, and destroys the body, but such as gladdens the heart, the wine which the Prophet recommends" •
Ecclesiastes 9:7: "Go, eat your food with gladness, and drink your wine with a joyful heart, for it is now that God favors what you do."
Ben Sira discusses the use of wine in several places, emphasizing joy, prudence, and common sense.
Vows and duties Certain persons were forbidden in the Hebrew Bible to partake of wine because of their vows and duties. Kings were forbidden to abuse alcohol lest their judgments be unjust. It was forbidden to
priests on duty, though the priests were given "the finest new wine" from the first fruits offerings for drinking outside the
tabernacle and temple. The
Nazirites excluded as part of their ascetic regimen not only wine, but also vinegar, grapes, and raisins, though when Nazirites completed the term of their vow they were required to present wine as part of their sacrificial offerings and could drink of it. While
John the Baptist adopted such a regimen, Jesus did not during his three years of ministry. The
Rechabites, a sub-tribe of the
Kenites, vowed never to drink wine, live in houses, or plant fields or vineyards, not because of any "threat to wise living" from the latter [Prov. 20:1] practices, but because of their commitment to a nomadic lifestyle by not being bound to any particular piece of land.
Symbolism and metaphor The commonness and centrality of wine in daily life in biblical times is apparent from its many positive and negative metaphorical uses throughout the Bible. Positively, free wine is used as a symbol of
divine grace, and wine is repeatedly compared to intimate love in the
Song of Solomon. Negatively, wine is
personified as a mocker ("[t]he most hardened apostate" in the
Book of Proverbs whose chief sin is pride) and beer a brawler (one who is "mocking, noisy, and restless"). The complacent are compared with "wine left on its dregs" too long, such that it lacks a good taste and is of no value, and those who are corrupt are compared with excellent wine which has been diluted with water. Wine was also used as a symbol of blessing and judgement throughout the Bible.
Melchizedek blessed and refreshed
Abraham's army with bread and wine;
Isaac blessed
Jacob by saying, "May God give you of heaven's dew and of earth's richness – an abundance of grain and new wine"; and when Jacob blessed his sons, he used a great abundance of wine as a symbol of
Judah's prosperity. The nation of Israel was promised abundant wine and other central crops such as grain and oil if they kept God's
covenant commandments, and their wine would be taken away as a curse if the Israelites failed to keep the covenant. Drinking a cup of strong wine to the dregs and getting drunk are sometimes presented as a symbol of God's judgement and wrath, and Jesus alludes this cup of wrath, which he several times says he himself will drink. Similarly, the winepress is pictured as a tool of judgement where the resulting wine symbolizes the blood of the wicked who were crushed. Connected also to the cup of judgement is the wine of immorality, which the evil drink and which both brings and is part of the wrath of God. (1627) showing the Samaritan pouring oil and wine on the injured man's wounds The
Day of the Lord, which is often understood by Christians to usher in the
Messianic Age, is depicted as a time when "[n]ew wine will drip from the mountains and flow from all the hills," when God's people will "plant vineyards and drink their wine," and when God himself "will prepare a feast of rich food for all peoples, a banquet of aged wine – the best of meats and the finest of wines." In the New Testament, Jesus uses wine at the Last Supper to signify the "New Covenant in [Jesus'] blood," but Christians differ over precisely how symbolic the wine is in the continuing ritual of the Eucharist.
Medicinal uses Wine was used in ancient times for various medicinal ends, and the Bible refers to some of these practices. It was likely used as an anesthetic to dull pain, and many interpreters suggest that it was in this capacity that wines were offered to Jesus at his
crucifixion. In the
Parable of the Good Samaritan, Jesus tells a story about a man from
Samaria who assists an injured man by, among other things, pouring oil and wine on his wounds. Oil mixed with wine was a common remedy in the ancient world to cleanse wounds and assuage their pain. Paul advises
Timothy that he should not drink water only, but should use a little wine for the sake of his stomach and frequent infirmities. Some have suggested this advice is particularly in reference to purifying low quality drinking water, while others suggest it was simply intended to help his digestion and general sickliness. Abstentionists generally regard this passage as a positive example of abstention from wine and see Paul's instructions as exceptional and purely for the sake of health, while other interpreters suggest that Timothy was "upright in his aims" but here guilty of an "excess of severity" or that he felt inappropriately bound by a Hellenistic custom that younger men should not drink.
Reading the Bible as having no positive references to alcohol There are some who interpret certain passages in the Bible as not referring to alcohol, arguing that all positive references to "wine" in Scripture refer to non-alcoholic beverages and all negative references speak of alcoholic beverages. Advocates of this view, called the "two-wine" position, argue that the Greek and Hebrew words rendered "wine" in most English versions are generic terms for fruit juices; context determines if the beverage in view is alcoholic or not. The fact is pointed out that even in earlier stages of the English language, such as in 1611 when the King James Version was translated, "wine" could refer to non-alcoholic beverages as well as alcoholic ones. The two-wine view is widespread in conservative
Evangelicalism. Dr. Robert Teachout, a fundamental Baptist seminary professor, argued for this position in his 1979 doctoral dissertation
The Use of "Wine" in the Old Testament. Separatist Baptist support for a biblical total abstinence position is widespread. Other sources for this view include the
Purified Translation of the Bible, where extensive footnotes are used to promote the idea, and the 19th century
Temperance Bible Commentary. ==References==