of a
Lutheran church The standard, four-pointed Latin crucifix (used in the Catholic and Lutheran traditions) consists of an upright post or and a single crosspiece to which the sufferer's arms were nailed. There may also be a short projecting
nameplate, showing the letters
INRI (Greek: INBI). The
Russian Orthodox crucifix usually has an additional third crossbar, to which the feet are nailed, and which is angled upward toward the penitent thief
Saint Dismas (to the viewer's left) and downward toward the impenitent thief
Gestas (to the viewer's right). The corpus of Eastern crucifixes is normally a two-dimensional or
low relief icon that shows Jesus as already dead, his face peaceful and somber. They are rarely three-dimensional figures as in the Western tradition, although these may be found where Western influences are strong, but are more typically icons painted on a piece of
wood shaped to include the double-barred cross and perhaps the edge of Christ's hips and
halo, and no background. More sculptural small crucifixes in metal
relief are also used in Orthodoxy (see gallery examples), including as
pectoral crosses and
blessing crosses. also uses the crucifix; this one is in the church of
St Mary-le-Bow in London Western crucifixes may show Christ dead or alive, the presence of the spear wound in his ribs traditionally indicating that he is dead. In either case his face very often shows his suffering. In the Eastern Orthodox tradition he has normally been shown as dead since around the end of the period of
Byzantine Iconoclasm. Eastern crucifixes have Jesus' two feet nailed side by side, rather than crossed one above the other, as Western crucifixes have shown them since around the 13th century. The
crown of thorns is also generally absent in Eastern crucifixes, since the emphasis is not on Christ's suffering, but on his triumph over sin and death. The S-shaped position of Jesus' body on the cross is a
Byzantine innovation of the late 10th century, though also found in the German
Gero Cross of the same date. Probably more from Byzantine influence, it spread elsewhere in the West, especially to
Italy, by the
Romanesque period, though it was more usual in painting than sculpted crucifixes. It was in Italy that the emphasis was put on Jesus' suffering and realistic details, during a process of general humanization of Christ favored by the
Franciscan order. During the 13th century the suffering Italian model () triumphed over the traditional Byzantine one () anywhere in Europe also due to the works of artists such as
Giunta Pisano and
Cimabue. Since the Renaissance the "S"-shape is generally much less pronounced. Eastern Christian blessing crosses will often have the Crucifixion depicted on one side, and the
Resurrection on the other, illustrating
Eastern Orthodox theology's understanding of the Crucifixion and Resurrection as two intimately related aspects of the same act of salvation. Another, symbolic, depiction shows a triumphant Christ (), clothed in robes, rather than stripped as for his execution, with arms raised, appearing to rise up from the cross, sometimes accompanied by "rays of light", or an
aureole encircling his body. He may be robed as a
prophet,
crowned as a
king, and vested in a
stole as
Great High Priest. On some crucifixes a skull and crossbones are shown below the corpus, referring to Golgotha (
Calvary), the site at which Jesus was crucified, which the Gospels say means in Hebrew "the place of the skull." Medieval tradition held that it was the burial-place of
Adam and
Eve, and that the cross of Christ was raised directly over Adam's skull, so many crucifixes manufactured in Catholic countries still show the skull and crossbones below the corpus. Very large crucifixes have been built, the largest being the
Cross in the Woods in Michigan, with a high statue. == Usage ==