Model (art)

Contemporary art models are most often paid professionals with skill and experience. Rarely employed full-time, they must be gig workers or independent contractors if modeling is to be a major source of income. In the second half of the 20th century, the dominance of abstraction in the art world reduced the need for models by professional artists except for the remaining representational artists. However, drawing from life remained an important part of the training needed for a complete visual arts education at the majority of art schools. A similar organization in the United States, the Bay Area Models Guild in California, was founded in 1946 by Florence Wysinger Allen. Groups also exist in Australia and Sweden. These groups may also attempt to establish minimum rates of pay and working conditions, but only rarely have models been sufficiently organized to go on strike. Diversity of models and students | alt=Life class at the Ringling Museum of Art in Sarasota, Florida, 1947 Unlike commercial modeling, modeling in an art school classroom is for the purpose of teaching students of art how to draw humans of all physical types, genders, ages, and ethnicities. The minimum age for life models in the United States is usually 18. Younger children are not good candidates for art modeling since they are not able to stay still. Founded in Boston in 2018, it has since moved to Florida, but has an increasing presence online. Working as a model Posing nude is physically and emotionally challenging, but models find the effort worthwhile and appreciate having a role in the creative arts. Phillips reported that some who tried modeling casually found it to be rewarding, and then sought to learn more about the job. Some had previously taken an art class and seen other models, but others had relied upon fine-art museums and books for suggestions on how to pose. Specific exercises or lesson plans may require a particular type of pose, but more often the model is expected to do a series of poses with little direction. The more a model knows about the types of exercises used to teach art, the better they become at posing. Occasionally a pose will cause unexpected problems, such as constricting blood flow that could result in a model passing out. While the first time posing may cause anxiety, most continue due to the relatively high pay. The most significant characteristic of the job mentioned by models is the physical exertion required. Poses fall into three basic categories: standing, seated and reclining. Within each of these, there are varying levels of difficulty, so one kind is not always easier than another. Artists and life drawing instructors will often prefer poses in which the body is being exerted, for a more dynamic and aesthetically interesting subject. Common poses such as standing twists, slouched seated poses and especially the classical contrapposto are difficult to sustain accurately for any amount of time, although it is often surprising what a skilled model can do. The model's level of experience and skill may be taken into account in determining the length of the posing session and the difficulty of the poses. Long poses are generally required for painting (hours) and sculpture (perhaps days). == Public perception ==

Much of the public perception of art models and their role in the production of artworks is based upon mythology, the conflation of art modeling with fashion modeling or erotic performances, and representations of art models in popular media. One of the perennial tropes is that in addition to providing the physical form for humans in an artwork, models may be thought of as muses, or sources of inspiration without whom the art would not exist. Another popular narrative is the female model as a male artist's mistress, some of whom become wives. None of these public perceptions include the professional model's own experience of modelling as work, (1915) was the first of four films featuring Audrey Munson as a nude model. In La Belle Noiseuse'' (1991) an aging artist is coaxed out of retirement by an aspiring young artist's suggestion that his girlfriend pose nude for a new painting. In the film Camille Claudel (1988); Gérard Depardieu as Auguste Rodin interacts sexually with the nude models in his studio accompanied by Isabelle Adjani as Camille Claudel when she was Rodin's assistant. The story of the sinking of the Titanic is changed from one of pure tragedy to one of female liberation in the 1997 film by James Cameron by focusing on two fictional characters, a young impoverished artist (Jack) who wins his passage in a card game and meets a young woman (Rose) being forced by her mother to marry a rich man that she dislikes. The act that confirms Rose's decision to free herself is posing nude for Jack, which is soon followed by sex. == Types ==

The major distinction in types of art modeling is between posing for art classes or other groups, usually on an hourly basis, versus posing for an individual artist in the creation of a particular work. The latter may include friends, family, or others with a continuing relationship with the artist. These types apply to all the media, figure drawing, figure painting, sculpture and figure photography. Academic modeling in Tel Aviv, 1946 Beginning with the Renaissance, drawing the human figure has been considered the most effective way to develop the skills of drawing. The life class became an essential part of the curriculum in art school, allowing students to understand the figure in three dimensions, and to learn about human anatomy. In the classroom setting, where the purpose is to learn how to draw or paint the human form in all the different shapes, ages and ethnicities, anyone who can hold a pose may be a model. In addition to technical requirements, an artist has an emotional or empathic connection to drawing another human being that cannot exist with any other subject. Given the generally negative view of public nudity, particularly in America, the institutions teaching art must maintain that within the figure studio, nudity is necessary and proper; which sociologist Sarah Phillips called "Establishing that serious work is happening". Admission to and visibility of the area where a nude model is posing is tightly controlled. Disrobing is done discreetly, and the model wears a robe when not posing. Guidelines at St. Olaf College discourages students making comments on a model's appearance. Photography is generally forbidden. Sometime modeling jobs are reserved for students. At Indiana University, however, current students at the Eskenazi School of Art, Architecture + Design may not pose nude, but only clothed, while students in other departments may be nude. At other institutions students cannot be models, even if they are not art students, to avoid any possibility of conflict of interest. Some colleges have a model coordinator assigned to supervise the selection and scheduling of models for all classes. Any of these policies may vary in different parts of the world. In Europe and South America attitudes are more relaxed than in the United States, while in China, Taiwan and Korea attitudes are more conservative. Artist's groups While otherwise similar to art school modeling, events variously called "open studios" or "drop-in sessions" lack instruction. They may be sponsored by arts organizations or galleries, or meet in an artist's private studio or home. Generally the attendees are experienced artists who want to continue the practice of life drawing, sharing the expense of model fees by paying for each session or a series. Modeling for individual artists In non-academic settings, models may pose as requested by artists within the limits of the law and their own comfort, including work that requires physical contact with other models, the artist, or the public. French artist Yves Klein applied paint to models' bodies which were then pressed into or dragged across canvas both as performance art and as a painting technique. In 2010 at the Museum of Modern Art, a retrospective of the work of Marina Abramović included two nude models, male and female, standing in a narrow doorway through which visitors passed, replicating a work performed by the artist and a partner in 1977. Models who work for individual artists in a private studio tend to observe art school norms in order to maintain the definition of modeling as serious artistic work. However, there are no longer strict rules, so a more informal working relationship may be established over time. This may include not undressing in another room, or not wearing a robe during breaks. In addition, silence is no longer necessary if the artist is comfortable working and conversing with the model. A more collegial relationship may develop where artist and model feel that they are collaborating. However, in a private studio environment, with an artist on a deadline or with commission guidelines, stricter work standards may apply regarding punctuality and holding longer, more demanding poses, but also higher rates of pay. However, private studio work is rare outside of major cities. Following his death in 2021, it was revealed that Close suffered from a form of dementia, which could account for his behavior. Family members, spouses and life partners Through history, artists have used family members as models, both nude and otherwise, in creating their works. The Dutch Golden Age painter Jan de Bray specialized in the portrait historié, "portraits" of historical figures using contemporary figures as models, including himself and his family, as in two versions of The Banquet of Cleopatra (1652 and 1669). French 18th century painter Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun painted many paintings of her daughter, painter Julie Le Brun. Rose Beuret was the subject of several portrait sculptures by Auguste Rodin and his companion for 53 years, but his wife only in the final year of her life. French painter and art collector Julie Manet is a subject of multiple paintings of her mother Berthe Morisot, uncle Édouard Manet, cousin Paule Gobillard and other Impressionist artists. Camille Doncieux, first wife of Claude Monet also posed for paintings by Pierre-Auguste Renoir and Édouard Manet. Hortense Fiquet, companion and later wife of Cézanne is rarely mentioned in art history. Lucian Freud painted many of his 14 children, sometimes nude; the most controversial being his daughter Annie Freud in 1963 when she was 14. However, she now looks back upon posing for her father as a positive experience. Clothed modeling of Nina Hamnett the "Queen of Bohemia", who also posed nude for Modigliani Painting classes, and artists doing historical themed works often require clothed or costumed models who take poses that may be sustained until the work is completed. This creates some demand for clothed models in those schools that continue to teach academic painting methods. Some models may promote their services based upon having interesting or varied costumes. Clothing is required in public venues, such as Dr Sketchy's Anti-Art School, but occurs in more traditional settings as well, such as the fund-raising marathons sponsored by the Bay Area Models Guild. Modern portraits are done from photographs at least in part, although artists prefer to have at least some hours of live sitting at the beginning to better capture the personality, and at the end for final touches. In some cases, the sitter may reject a portrait as unflattering, and destroy it. Photography working with model Zoë Mozert in the 1930s There has been controversy regarding the status of photography as a fine-arts medium that is reflected in the unwillingness of some models to also pose nude for photography as they would for drawing or painting. Mary Gordon characterized many of these images as sexualizing children regardless of artistic merit. Mann's response to this criticism has been that the images were spontaneous and natural, having no sexual connotations other than those supplied by the viewer. Less well-known photographers have been charged, but not convicted, for suspected child abuse for similar photographs of their own children. Jock Sturges photographed entire families of naturists, which led to an FBI investigation when a photo-lab employee reported the images; however, no charges were made. portrait of Georgia O'Keeffe (1918) The relationship between male photographers and their wives as models is studied in Arthur Ollman's book, The Model Wife. It focuses on the photographers Baron Adolph de Meyer (whose wife was Olga de Meyer), Alfred Stieglitz (whose wife was Georgia O'Keeffe), Edward Weston and model Charis Wilson, Harry Callahan, Emmet Gowin, Lee Friedlander, Masahisa Fukase, Seiichi Furuya, and Nicholas Nixon. Occasionally the distinction of participating in Fine Art may make a young amateur model willing to pose for a well-known photographer, examples being Vanessa Williams and Madonna. A signed print of one of the nude photographs of Madonna taken by Lee Friedlander in 1979 sold at auction in 2012 for $37,000. Although largely a result of her fame, the model does not share in this increased value of the artwork. Online During the COVID-19 pandemic, life drawing classes began to appear on online platforms, most frequently on Zoom. This shift to virtual spaces created new, global communities and increased access to artists who were able to join sessions from their homes. Although remote sessions suffer from some difficulties, such as the flattening and distortion of the camera and the lack of direct communications, there has been an expansion of the community willing and able to participate, both as models and artists. Models at the Government College of Art & Craft in India for whom posing for classes is their only income do not have the online option, but have been supported by donations from artists. == Nudity and body image ==

In recent years, a connection has been made between social issues of body image, sexualization and art modeling with some promoting wider participation in life drawing, including at a younger age, to provide an experience of real nude people as an alternative to social media representations of idealized bodies. The social benefits of life drawing were suggested by David B. Manzella in the 1970s while director of the Rhode Island School of Design. Nude models were introduced to the young people's classes with the permission of parents. Models often cite acceptance of their bodies as one of the benefits of modeling. While younger women continue to be the typical model, men and older models are welcomed in cities with an active arts community such as Glasgow, Scotland. == Alternative views ==

The mainstream view of art modeling is based upon a moderate position regarding the value of figure studies and nudity in art. There are also schools or studios that may be more conservative, or more liberal. Many art programs in Christian institutions consider nudity in any form to be in conflict with their beliefs, and therefore hire only clothed models for art classes. None of the Protestant Evangelical colleges in the United States were found to include nude models in their arts and graphic design programs, citing it as an immodest practice; yet similar institutions in Australia held life drawing classes. At Louisiana State University (LSU), there are rare objections to nudity by religious or conservative students, but the faculty assert that drawing the body is necessary training for art in general and to understand the structure underneath clothing. Models at LSU are full-time students who learn about modeling from other students or artists. Other institutions view the absence of figure studies as bringing into question the completeness of the art education offered. Some recognize that an appreciation of the beauty of the human body is compatible with a Christian education. Gordon College not only maintains the need for nude figure studies as part of a complete classical art education, but sees the use of models clad in swimwear or other revealing garments as placing the activity in the context of advertisement and sexual exploitation. James Elkins voices an alternative to classical "dispassionate" figure study by stating that the nude is never devoid of erotic meaning, and it is a fiction to pretend otherwise. The advocate of classical aesthetics Kenneth Clark recognized that "biological urges" were never absent even in the most chaste nude, nor should they be unless all life is drained from the work. A feminist view is the male gaze, which asserts that nudes are inherently voyeuristic, with the viewer in the place of the powerful male gazing upon the passive female subject. ==History==

The role of art models has changed through different eras as the meaning and importance of the human figure in art and society has changed. Nude modeling, nude art and nudity in general have at times been the subject to social disapproval, at least by some elements in society. Quentin Crisp began a thirty-year career as a model in 1942. The names of some of these models of the era are themselves known, such as the beautiful Phryne who modeled for many paintings and sculptures. The nude almost disappeared from Western art during the Middle Ages, largely due to the attitude of the early Christians, although in Kenneth Clark's famous distinction "naked" figures were still required for some subjects, especially the Last Judgment. This changed with the Renaissance and the rediscovery of classical antiquity, when painters initially used their male apprentices (garzoni) as models, for figures of both genders, as is often clear from their drawings. Leon Battista Alberti recommends drawing from the nude in his De pictura of 1435; as remained usual until the end of the century, he seems only to mean using male models. The story of the love between Raphael and his mistress-model Margarita Luti (La Fornarina) is "the archetypal artist-model relationship of Western tradition". There was also a tradition of incorporating donor portraits as minor figures into religious narrative scenes, and several Virgin and Child compositions by court painters are thought to use princesses or other court figures as models for the Virgin Mary; these are sometimes called "disguised portraits". The most notorious of these is the portrayal as the Virgo lactans (or just post-lactans) of Agnès Sorel (died 1450), the mistress of Charles VII of France, in a panel by Jean Fouquet. Raphael's relationship was probably somewhat untypical, although the Autobiography of Benvenuto Cellini records his use, in both Rome and Paris, of servant girls as model, mistress and maid. However, when he broke with one he had difficulty in finding another model, and was forced to rehire her just to pose. The Académie royale de peinture et de sculpture only allowed female models, clothed, from 1759. Late modern and contemporary {{gallery | title=Models in the 19th century| width=120 In 19th-century Paris, a number of models earned a place in art history. Victorine Meurent became a painter herself after posing for several works, including two of the most infamous: ''Manet's Olympia and Le déjeuner sur l'herbe''. Joanna Hiffernan was an Irish artists' model and muse who was romantically linked with American painter James Abbott McNeill Whistler and French painter Gustave Courbet. She is the model for Whistler's painting Symphony in White, No. 1: The White Girl and is rumored to be the model for Courbet's painting ''L'Origine du monde. Suzanne Valadon, also a painter, modeled for Pierre-Auguste Renoir (most notably in Dance at Bougival''), Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, Pierre Puvis de Chavannes, and Edgar Degas. She was the mother of the painter Maurice Utrillo. Julie Manet, who posed for her mother Berte Morisot and many other Impressionist artists, was also a painter and an important art collector. The second Bal des Quat'z'Arts held in 1893 was a costume ball featuring nude models among the crowd, blurring the distinction between the idealized images in works of art and the real people who posed for them. This was symbolic of other social changes that marked the fin de siècle. Four studio models were convicted of public indecency, which was followed by protests of censorship by students of the École des Beaux-Arts. When Victorian attitudes took hold in England, studies with a live model became more restrictive than they had been in the prior century, limited to advanced classes of students that had already proved their worthiness by copying old master paintings and drawing from plaster casts. In 1886, Eakins was dismissed from the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Art for removing the loincloth from a male model in a mixed classroom. In the postmodern era, the nude has returned to gain some acceptance in the art world, but not necessarily the art model. Figure drawing is offered in most art schools, but may not be required for a fine art degree. Peter Steinhart says that in trendy galleries, the nude has become passé, Some established living artists work from models, but more work from photographs, or their imagination. Yet privately held open drawing sessions with a live model remain as popular as ever. ==See also==