Serotonergic agents The recreational drug
MDMA ("ecstasy") and a variety of related drugs have been described as
empathogen-entactogens, or simply as
entactogens. These agents possess serenic and
empathy-increasing properties in addition to their
euphoriant effects, and have been associated with increased sociability, friendliness, and feelings of closeness to others as well as
emotional empathy and
prosocial behavior. The entactogenic effects of these drugs are thought to be related to their ability to temporarily increase the levels of certain brain chemicals, including
serotonin,
dopamine, and, particularly,
oxytocin. Certain other
serotonergic drugs, such as
5-HT1A receptor agonists, also increase oxytocin levels and may possess serenic properties as well. The
phenylpiperazine mixed 5-HT1A and
5-HT1B receptor agonists
eltoprazine,
fluprazine, and
batoprazine have been described based on
animal research as serenics. The selective 5-HT1A
biased full agonist F-15,599 (NLX-101) has shown antiaggressive effects in rodents as well. The serotonin
5-HT2C receptor agonist
lorcaserin has been found to reduce impulsive aggression in people with
intermittent explosive disorder (IED). Serotonin 5-HT2C receptor agonists have also been found to produce antiaggressive effects in rodents. However, DOI has also been found to have pro-aggressive effects. Serotonin
5-HT2A receptor antagonists have been found to reduce aggression in animals.
Antidopaminergic agents Antipsychotics, which are
dopamine D2 receptor antagonists, are well-known as reducing aggression in humans and have been clinically employed for this purpose.
Molindone is under development for the treatment of
impulsive aggression in children and adolescents with
attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).
Anticonvulsants and mood stabilizers Certain
anticonvulsants and
mood stabilizers, including
valproic acid/
divalproex sodium,
carbamazepine,
oxcarbazepine,
phenytoin,
lamotrigine,
topiramate, and
lithium, have been found to be effective in the treatment of
aggression. Certain others, including
gabapentin and
tiagabine, may also have antiaggressive effects.
Beta blockers Beta blockers, or
β-adrenergic receptor antagonists, have been used to treat
aggression and
agitation. Beta blockers that have been used for such purposes include
propranolol,
pindolol, and
nadolol. Another meta-analysis found that methylphenidate slightly reduced
irritability while amphetamines increased the risk of irritability several-fold in children with ADHD however. Other research has found no impact of
amphetamine or
methamphetamine on aggression in humans.
Cholinergic agents Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors within the CNS, specifically
α7 homopentameric receptors, are implicated in the regulation of aggression. The serenic effect of nicotine is well documented both in laboratory animals and humans, and, conversely,
nicotinic receptor antagonists and nicotine withdrawal are associated with irritability and aggression. Additionally, nicotinic receptors are required for
rabies virus entry into a neuron, and the dysfunction of these neurons is implicated in the rabies-associated aggression.
Cannabinoids Cannabinoids like
nabilone have been studied and reported effective for management of severe aggression in people with profound
autism and other
intellectual and
developmental disabilities.
Hormonal and related agents Agonists and
antagonists of the
receptors for the
endogenous hormones
oxytocin and
vasopressin, respectively, have been shown to decrease aggressive behavior in scientific research, implicating them in the normal regulation of pathways involving aggressive behavior in the brain.
Small-molecule oxytocin-like drugs like
KNX-100 have been found to produce antiaggressive effects in animals. Certain
neurosteroids, such as
allopregnanolone, also appear to play a role in the regulation of aggression, including, notably,
sexually-dimorphic aggressive behavior. The
sex hormones
testosterone and
estradiol regulate aggression as well. == See also ==