, Arakan.
Brahmi legend "NITI" in front,
Shrivatasa symbol on the reverse. 8th century CE. The history of the region of
Arakan (now renamed Rakhine State) can be roughly divided into seven parts. The first four divisions and the periods are based on the location of the centre of power of the main polities in the northern Rakhine region, especially along the Kaladan River. Thus, the history is divided into the
Dhanyawadi,
Waithali,
Laymro and
Mrauk U. Mrauk U was conquered by the
Konbaung dynasty of Burma in 1784–85, after which Rakhine became part of the Konbaung kingdom of Burma. In 1824, the first
Anglo-Burmese war erupted and in 1826, Rakhine (alongside
Tanintharyi) was ceded to the
British East India Company as
war reparations by the Burmese. Rakhine thus became part of the
province of Burma in
British India. In 1948, Burma was given independence and Rakhine became part of the newly independent state.
Independent kingdom Beginning in the 400s, the
Pyus and Kanyans of Tibeto-Burman people began migrating westward, crossing the
Arakan Mountains and settling in what is now Rakhine State. By the 1100s, they had consolidated control of the region, becoming a tributary state of the
Pagan Empire until the 13th century.
Burmese annexation In 1784, a group of Rakhine representatives sought assistance from
Bodawpaya, king of the
Konbaung dynasty, to mediate internal disputes within the
Rakhine royal court. Responding to their request—and motivated by expansionist ambitions—Bodawpaya dispatched his son,
Thado Minsaw, the
Prince of the Front Palace, to lead a full-scale military expedition into
Arakan. The invasion force was divided into three land columns and a naval flotilla. The campaign began on 2 December 1784, and on 2 January 1785, the
Kingdom of Mrauk U—weakened by internal strife—fell to the invading forces of the
Konbaung dynasty.
Maha Thammada Raza, the last king of Mrauk U, was captured along with his queen, royal family members, ministers, monks, and artisans, and deported to
Amarapura. One of the most significant war trophies was the sacred
Mahamuni Buddha Image, which was dismantled and transported to Amarapura, and later enshrined in
Mandalay. The Burmese also seized numerous cultural and religious artifacts, including
gold and
silver regalia,
bronze statues (some originally taken from the
Ayutthaya), weapons, and sacred manuscripts. Although the Rakhine people initially believed the Burmese would restore peace, they soon recognized the move as an annexation. Uprisings ensued, and many rebels fled to
British-controlled Bengal. When Burmese forces crossed the border in pursuit, tensions escalated between Burma and the
British East India Company, setting the stage for future conflict. With the annexation of Arakan,
Burma came into direct territorial contact with
British India. These tensions eventually culminated in the
First Anglo-Burmese War (1824–1826). During the conflict, British forces captured Arakan and occupied parts of Lower Burma. In a symbolic reversal of earlier events, the
Presidency armies took the great bell from the Mahamuni shrine as war loot. It was awarded to Bhim Singh, a Risaldar in the 2nd Battalion of the
Bengal Army, for his bravery. The bell is still housed in a temple in
Nadrai, near
Kasganj, in present-day
Kasganj district of
Uttar Pradesh,
India. The war concluded with the signing of the
Treaty of Yandabo in 1826, under which Burma ceded
Arakan and
Tenasserim to the British.
Akyab (now
Sittwe) became the administrative capital of Arakan. Later, Arakan was integrated into the province of
Burma under the
British Raj, and then into
British Burma after it became a separate
Crown colony. Administratively, Arakan was divided into three districts, following the traditional divisions of the
Mrauk U period.
British rule Rakhine was the centre of multiple insurgencies which fought against British rule, notably led by the monks
U Ottama and
U Seinda. During the Second World War, Rakhine was given autonomy under the
Japanese occupation of Burma and was even granted its own army known as the Arakan Defense Force. The Arakan Defense Force went over to the allies and turned against the Japanese in early 1945. Rakhine (Arakan) was the site of many battles during the Second World War, most notably the
Arakan Campaign 1942–43 and the
Battle of Ramree Island.
Burmese independence In 1948, Rakhine became a division within the
Union of Burma, and the three districts became Arakan Division. From the 1950s, there was a growing movement for
secession and restoration of Arakan independence.
2010 onwards (after 2008 constitution) Since 2010, Rakhine state has had two chief ministers: Hla Maung Tin and Major General Maung Maung Ohn. Hla Maung Tin (January 2011 – 20 June 2014) was an elected Rakhine
State Hluttaw member representing USDP from
Ann Township in 2010 general election. He resigned from the post after recurrent intense inter-communal conflicts between Muslims and Rakhine ethnic groups in 2012–14. In 2014, he was replaced by Major General Maung Maung Ohn (30 June 2014 – present). Ohn was Deputy Minister for Border Affairs and head of the Rakhine State's Emergency Coordination Center before he was named to become a military-appointed Rakhine State Hluttaw member by Election Commission on 21 June 2014. His appointment as Chief Minister was formalized on 30 June 2014 although Arakan National Party opposed it. In June 2012, Rakhine State in Myanmar experienced
severe communal violence between ethnic Rakhine Buddhists and
Rohingya Muslims, resulting in at least 88 fatalities, 4,600 homes being burnt and displacement of approximately 100,000 people.
Resurgence of armed conflict (2016–present) As of December 2024, the
State Administration Council junta stably possesses only
Sittwe Township,
Kyaukpyu Township, and
Munaung Township. The rest of Rakhine State is either controlled by the
Arakan Army, or heavily contested.
Political repression by the Myanmar government The NLD government refused to share executive power at the state level after the
Arakan National Party (ANP) won a majority of votes in Rakhine State during the
2015 general election. Arakanese lawmakers frequently complained that their proposals in the state parliament were rejected or ignored. In 2017, State Counsellor
Aung San Suu Kyi and the
Tatmadaw reportedly rejected national-level political dialogue in Rakhine State, a mandatory step under the
Nationwide Ceasefire Agreement (NCA). This dialogue would have allowed regional stakeholders to present proposals at large-scale public consultations, with the outcomes discussed at the Union Peace Conference, also known as the 21st Century Panglong. In February 2017, the
Arakan Liberation Party (ALP)—one of eight NCA signatories—requested to hold ethnic-based national-level political dialogue in Rakhine State. Aung San Suu Kyi declined, stating that the ALP was not yet ready. Despite submitting three formal requests, the government did not respond. At a Joint Implementation Coordination Meeting (JICM), Suu Kyi again denied the request, citing the sensitive situation involving Rohingya Muslims in Rakhine State. On 16 January 2018, thousands of residents in
Mrauk U staged a protest after officials banned a memorial event commemorating the 233rd anniversary of the fall of the
Mrauk U Kingdom. Local police opened fire on the crowd, killing seven people and injuring 12. Two speakers at the event—
Aye Maung, a prominent Rakhine politician, and
Wai Hun Aung, a Sittwe-based activist—were subsequently charged. Aye Maung was charged under Section 17(1) of the Unlawful Associations Act and Sections 121 and 505 of the Penal Code, relating to high treason and incitement, while Wai Hun Aung was charged with public mischief. Eight Rakhine youths injured in the protest were also detained and charged under Article 6(1) for allegedly damaging government and public property. On 16 October 2020, the
Union Election Commission (UEC) announced that the
2020 Myanmar general election would not be held in several areas of Rakhine State, including the townships of
Pauktaw,
Ponnagyun,
Rathedaung,
Buthidaung,
Maung Daw,
Kyauktaw,
Minbya,
Myebon, and
Mrauk U; along with multiple quarters and village tracts in
Kyaukphyu Township,
Ann Township,
Sittwe Township, and
Toungup Township. The UEC stated that free and fair elections could not be held due to ongoing conflict and instability. With the exception of Toungup Township, ethnic Rakhine parties have historically been dominant in these areas. The
Rakhine Nationalities Development Party (RNDP) and
Arakan National Party (ANP) won the majority of seats in these townships during the 2010 and 2015 general elections.
2020–present In November 2020, the Myanmar military and the Arakan Army (AA) reached an informal ceasefire, leading to a temporary reduction in hostilities in Rakhine State. However, after the military coup in February 2021, clashes resumed in the region. Following the military coup in February 2021, Rakhine State experienced intensified armed conflicts, particularly between the
Myanmar Armed Forces (MAF) and the Arakan Army (AA). By September 2021, the AA and its political wing, the
United League of Arakan (ULA), had gained control over roughly 75% of Rakhine’s townships. On October 27, 2023,
Operation 1027 was launched by the
Three Brotherhood Alliance, consisting of the Arakan Army (AA), the
Ta'ang National Liberation Army (TNLA), and the
Myanmar National Democratic Alliance Army (MNDAA). The offensive led to the capture of over 130 military outposts and strategic bases in northern
Shan State, including the key border town of
Laukkai. Reports indicated significant losses for the Myanmar military, with hundreds of soldiers killed and over 4,000 troops, including senior officers, surrendering. By February 2025, a CSIS report indicated that the Arakan Army had begun establishing local governments in the Rakhine townships under its control. However, little is known about their governance structure or the inclusion of non-Arakan ethnic groups. It remains unclear whether the AA will halt military operations after securing its claimed territory, as its offensives in
Paletwa,
Magway, and other areas suggest broader territorial ambitions. The group's stance on Myanmar’s political future is also uncertain, while it previously sought autonomy under the 2008 constitution like the
United Wa State Army, it may now pursue full statehood or independence. ==Demographics==