Prehistory The region of present-day Uttar Pradesh has been inhabited since
prehistoric times, with evidence of
modern human hunter-gatherers dating to between approximately 85,000 and 72,000 years ago. Archaeological finds from the Middle and Upper Paleolithic periods (c. 31,000–21,000 years ago) have been reported, while
Mesolithic or
microlithic settlements, such as those at Sarai Nahar Rai in
Pratapgarh, date to around 10,550–9,550 BCE and indicate subsistence patterns based on hunting, fishing, and early burial practices. Early
Stone Age remains have also been identified in the Belan Valley, where tools such as hand axes and cleavers reflect long-term habitation by hunter-gatherer communities.
Neolithic sites, including
Koldihwa, provide evidence of early agriculture, including rice cultivation, alongside domestication of cattle, sheep, and goats, with village settlements emerging as early as 6000 BCE and gradually developing between c. 4000 and 1500 BCE. This developmental phase overlaps with broader cultural transitions from the
Indus Valley Civilisation and
Harappan traditions to the
Vedic period. During the
Chalcolithic phase, the use of copper alongside stone tools is reflected in the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture at sites such as Atranjikhera, along with copper hoards found across the Ganga–Yamuna Doab. The subsequent Iron Age is marked by the Painted Grey Ware culture at sites including Hastinapur and Ahichchhatra, followed by the
Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) culture at urban centres such as
Kaushambi and Varanasi, reflecting increasing urbanisation and socio-economic complexity in the region.
Ancient and classical period Out of the sixteen
mahajanapadas () or
oligarchic republics that existed in ancient India, seven fell entirely within the present-day boundaries of the state. The kingdom of
Kosala, in the
Mahajanapada era, was also located within the regional boundaries of modern-day Uttar Pradesh. According to Hinduism, the divine King
Rama of the
Ramayana epic reigned in
Ayodhya, the capital of Kosala.
Krishna, another divine king of Hindu legend, who plays a key role in the
Mahabharata epic and is revered as the eighth reincarnation (
Avatar) of the Hindu god
Vishnu, is said to have been born in the city of
Mathura. Following the
Huns' invasions that broke the Gupta empire, the
Ganges-Yamuna Doab saw the rise of
Kannauj. During the reign of
Harshavardhana (590–647), the Kannauj empire reached its zenith. Kannauj was several times invaded by the South Indian
Rashtrakuta dynasty, from the 8th century to the 10th century. After the fall of the Pala empire, the
Chero dynasty ruled from the 12th century to the 18th century.
Delhi Sultanate Uttar Pradesh was partially or entirely ruled by the
Delhi Sultanate for 320 years (1206–1526). Five dynasties ruled over the Delhi Sultanate sequentially: the
Mamluk dynasty (1206–90), the
Khalji dynasty (1290–1320), the
Tughlaq dynasty (1320–1414), the
Sayyid dynasty (1414–51), and the
Lodi dynasty (1451–1526). The first Sultan of Delhi,
Qutb ud-Din Aibak, conquered some parts of Uttar Pradesh, including
Meerut,
Aligarh, and
Etawah. His successor,
Iltutmish, expanded the Sultanate's rule over Uttar Pradesh by defeating the King of
Kannauj. During the reign of Sultan
Balban, the Mamluk dynasty faced numerous rebellions in the state, but he was able to suppress them and establish his authority.
Alauddin Khilji, extended his conquests to various regions in the state, including
Varanasi and
Prayagraj. Apart from the rulers, the Delhi Sultanate era also saw the growth of
Sufism in Uttar Pradesh. Sufi saints, such as
Nizamuddin Auliya and
Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki, lived during this period and their teachings had a significant impact on the people of the region. Sultanat era in the state also witnessed the construction of mosques and tombs, including the
Atala Masjid in
Jaunpur, the
Jama Masjid in
Fatehpur Sikri, and the
Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq's Tomb in
Tughlaqabad.
Medieval and early modern period In the 16th century,
Babur, a
Timurid descendant of
Timur and
Genghis Khan from
Fergana Valley (modern-day
Uzbekistan), swept across the
Khyber Pass and founded the
Mughal Empire, covering
India, along with modern-day
Afghanistan, Pakistan and
Bangladesh. The Mughals were descended from Persianised Central Asian
Turks (with significant
Mongol admixture). In the
Mughal era, Uttar Pradesh became the heartland of the empire. Mughal emperors Babur and Humayun ruled from Delhi. In 1540 an Afghan,
Sher Shah Suri, took over the reins of Uttar Pradesh after defeating the Mughal King Humanyun. Sher Shah and his son Islam Shah ruled Uttar Pradesh from their capital at
Gwalior. After the death of
Islam Shah Suri, his prime minister
Hemu became the
de facto ruler of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, and the western parts of Bengal. He was bestowed the title of
Hemchandra Vikramaditya (title of
Vikramāditya adopted from
Vedic period) at his formal coronation took place at
Purana Qila in Delhi on 7 October 1556. A month later, Hemu died in the
Second Battle of Panipat, and Uttar Pradesh came under Emperor
Akbar's rule. Akbar ruled from
Agra and
Fatehpur Sikri. In the 18th century, after the fall of Mughal authority, the power vacuum was filled by the
Maratha Empire, in the mid-18th century, the Maratha army invaded the Uttar Pradesh region, which resulted in
Rohillas losing control of
Rohilkhand to the Maratha forces led by
Raghunath Rao and
Malha Rao Holkar. The conflict between Rohillas and Marathas came to an end on 18 December 1788 with the arrest of
Ghulam Qadir, the grandson of Najeeb-ud-Daula, who was defeated by the Maratha general
Mahadaji Scindia. In 1803–04, following the
Second Anglo-Maratha War, when the
British East India Company defeated the Maratha Empire, much of the region came under British suzerainty.
British India era Starting from
Bengal in the second half of the 18th century, a series of battles for north Indian lands finally gave the
British East India Company accession over the state's territories.
Ajmer and
Jaipur kingdoms were also included in this northern territory, which was named the "
North-Western Provinces" (of Agra). Although UP later became the fifth-largest state of India, NWPA was one of the smallest states of the British Indian empire. Its capital shifted twice between Agra and Allahabad. Due to dissatisfaction with British rule, a serious rebellion erupted in various parts of North India, which became known as the
Indian Rebellion of 1857;
Bengal regiment's sepoy stationed at
Meerut cantonment,
Mangal Pandey, is widely considered as its starting point. After the revolt failed, the British divided the most rebellious regions by reorganising their administrative boundaries, splitting the Delhi region from 'NWFP of Agra' and merging it with
Punjab Province, while the
Ajmer–
Marwar region was merged with
Rajputana and
Oudh was incorporated into the state. The new state was called the North Western Provinces of Agra and Oudh, which in 1902 was renamed as the
United Provinces of Agra and Oudh. It was commonly referred to as the United Provinces or its acronym UP. In 1920, the capital of the province was shifted from Allahabad to
Lucknow. The high court continued to be at Allahabad, but a bench was established at Lucknow. Allahabad continues to be an important administrative base of today's Uttar Pradesh and has several administrative headquarters. Uttar Pradesh continued to be central to Indian politics and was especially important in modern Indian history as a hotbed of the
Indian independence movement. The state hosted modern educational institutions such as the
Aligarh Muslim University,
Banaras Hindu University and
Darul Uloom Deoband. Nationally known figures such as
Ram Prasad Bismil and
Chandra Shekhar Azad were among the leaders of the movement in Uttar Pradesh, and
Motilal Nehru,
Jawaharlal Nehru,
Madan Mohan Malaviya and
Govind Ballabh Pant were important national leaders of the
Indian National Congress. The
All India Kisan Sabha was formed at the Lucknow session of the Congress on 11 April 1936, with the famous nationalist
Sahajanand Saraswati elected as its first president, to address the longstanding grievances of the peasantry and mobilise them against the
zamindari landlords attacks on their occupancy rights, thus sparking the Farmers movements in India. During the
Quit India Movement of 1942,
Ballia district overthrew the colonial authority and installed an independent administration under
Chittu Pandey. Ballia became known as "Baghi Ballia" (Rebel Ballia) for this significant role in India's independence movement.
Post-independence After India's independence, the United Provinces were renamed "Uttar Pradesh" (), preserving UP as the abbreviation of the state's name, with the change coming into effect on 24 January 1950. In December 1992 the disputed
Babri Mosque located in
Ayodhya was demolished by Hindu activists, leading to widespread violence across India. In 2000, northern districts of the state were separated to form the state of
Uttarakhand. == Geography ==