Temple architecture ,
Kasaragod, Kerala Compared to other Indian regions, Kerala state has a large number of Hindu temples – almost 3000 – with a variety of structures. The temples of Kerala developed in strict accordance with two temple construction theses:
Thantra-Samuchayam and
Shilparatnam. The former deals in developing structures that regulate
energy flows so that positive energy flows in and negative energy does not remain stuck within the structure; the latter deals in developing stone and timber architecture in such manner that each carved structure is imbibed with a life and personality of its own. An important technical feature of the temple architecture of Kerala is the construction technique of using a dimensional standardisation. The nucleus of the temple plan is the shrine containing the
garbhagriha cell. The width of this cell is the basic module of the dimensional system. In plan composition, the width of the shrine, the open space around it, and the position and sizes of the surrounding structures are all related to the standard module. In vertical composition, this dimensional co-ordination is carried right up to the minute construction details such as the size of pillars, wall plates, and rafters. The canonical rules of the proportionate system are given in the treatises and preserved by skilled craftsmen. This proportionate system has ensured uniformity in architectural style irrespective of the geographical distribution and scale of construction.
Key features Sri-kovil The
sri-kovil (
sanctum sanctorum) is where the idol of the presiding deity is installed and worshiped. It is an independent structure, detached from other buildings with no connections, and sharing its roof with no other buildings. The
sri-kovil does not have any windows and has only one large door opening most often towards the east (or sometimes towards the west; a few temples have a north-facing door as their specialty, while no temples have a south-facing door). The
sri-kovil may be built on different plan shapes – square, rectangular, circular, or
apsidal. Of these, the square plan shows an even distribution throughout Kerala. The square shape is basically the form of the Vedic fire altar and strongly suggests the Vedic mooring. It is categorized as the 'Nagara style' in the architectural texts. The rectangular plan is favored for the Ananthasai Vishnu (Lord Vishnu in reclining posture) and the Sapta Matrikas (Seven Mother Goddesses). The circular plan and the apsidal plan are rare in other parts of India and unknown even in the civil architecture of Kerala, but they constitute an important group of temples. The circular plan is more common in the southern part of Kerala, in regions once under the influence of Buddhism. The apsidal plan is a combination of the semicircle and the square, and is distributed sporadically over the whole coastal region. Circular temples belong to the 'Vasara' category. A variation of circle-ellipse is also seen as an exception in the Siva shrine at Vaikkom. Polygonal shapes belonging to the Dravida category are rarely adopted in temple plans, but they find use as a feature of
shikhara. As per the
Thantra-Samuchayam, every
sri-kovil should be built either neutral or even-sided. For the unitary temples, the overall height is taken as 13/7 to 2 and 1/8 of the width of the shrine, and categorized into five classes
santhika,
purshtika,
yayada,
achudha, and
savakamikaeach with increasing height of the temple form. The total height is divided into two halves. The lower half consists of the basement, the pillar or the wall (
stambha or
bhithi), and the
entablature (
prasthara) in a ratio of 1:2:1 in height. Similarly, the upper half is divided into the neck (
griva), the roof tower (
shikhara), and the
finial (
kalasham) in the same ratio. The foundation (
adhisthana) is generally granite but the superstructure is built out of laterite. The roofs are usually taller than other temple structures. The structural roof of the shrine is constructed as a corbelled dome of masonry; however, to protect it from the vagaries of climate, a functional roof is superimposed on it, made from a timber frame covered with planks and tiles. This sloping roof with its projecting eaves is a characteristic form of Kerala temples. The finial, made of copper, provides the crowning spire and denotes the shrine wherein the idol is installed. The
Sri-Kovil is usually on a raised platform with a flight of 3, 5, or more steps (called the
Sopanapadi), which are flanked by two large guardian statues known as
Dwarapalakas (door guards). As per Kerala ritual customs, only the main priest (
Thantri) and second priest (
Melshanti) are allowed to enter into the
Sri-Kovil.
Namaskara mandapam The
Namaskara Mandapa is a square-shaped pavilion with a raised platform, set of pillars, and pyramidal roof. The size of the
mandapa is decided by the width of the shrine cell. The pavilion in its simplest form has four corner pillars, but larger pavilions are provided with two sets of pillars – four inside and twelve outside. Pavilions of circular, elliptical, and polygonal shapes are mentioned in the texts, but they are not seen in the Kerala temples.
Mandapams are used to conduct Vedic-Thantric rites.
Nalambalam The shrine and the
mandapa building are enclosed in a rectangular structure called the
nalambalam. Functionally, the rear and side halls of the
nalambalam serve various purposes related to ritualistic worship. The front hall is pierced with the entry, dividing it into two parts:
Agrashalas, which are used for feeding Brahmans and performing
yagas; and
koothuambalams, which are used for displaying murals and staging temple arts such as
Koodiyattam or "
Kathakali". Occasionally,
koothuambalams are built as separate structures outside of the
Nalambalam.
Balithara At the entrance of the
nalambalam, a square-shaped raised stone altar called the
balithara can be seen. This altar is used to make ritualistic offerings to demi-gods and other spirits. Inside the
nalambalam are several small round stones, called
balikallukal, which are meant for the same purpose.
Chuttambalam The outer enclosure within the temple walls is known as a
chuttambalam. Normally, the
chuttambalam has a pillar-supported main pavilion (
mukha-mandapam or
thala-mandapam) that contains the sacred flag post (
dwajastambam) at its center. The temple is fully enclosed by a massive wall (
kshetra-madillukal) pierced with gatehouses (
gopurams). These gatehouses are usually two-storeyed, and serve two purposes. The ground floor is an open space generally used as a platform for temple dances (such as
kurathy dance or
ottan thullal) during festivals. The upper floor with wooden trails covering the sides functions as a
kottupura (a hall for drum beating). The
chuttambalam normally has four gates to enter from all sides. A stone paved walkway will be seen around the
chuttambalam to allow devotees to circulate around the temple, which for some large temples is covered with a roof supported with massive pillars on both sides. The
chuttambalam will have giant lamp-posts (
dwajavillakku) in several places, mostly in the
mukha-mandapam.
Koothambalam A significant feature of big temple complexes is a theatre hall known as a
koothambalam, used for dance, musical performance, and religious recitals. This is a unique component of Kerala temple architecture, distinct from the
natyasabha or
natyamandir seen in North Indian temples. The
koothambalam is a large, high-roofed, pillared hall containing a stage (
rangamandapam) used for performances. The stage as well as the pillars are ornately decorated. Visual and acoustic considerations are incorporated in the layout of the pillars and construction details so that the performances can be enjoyed by the spectators without discomfort and distortion. The
koothambalam design seems to have been based on the canons given in the Natyasastra of Bharata Muni.
Ambala kulam Every temple has a sacred temple pond or lake (
ambala kulam) located within the temple complex. As per
Vastu rules, water is considered a source of positive energy and synthesis balance of all energies. The temple pond is used only by priests as a holy bath before the start of rituals, as well as for various sacred rituals within the temple. In a few cases, a separate pond will be constructed to allow devotees to bath before entering in temple. Today, several temples have a holy well (
mani kenar) within the
nalambalam to obtain
sacred water for the purposes of
Abisekham.
Thevarapura Within the
nalambalam, a separate complex contains the cooking foods meant to serve the deity and for distribution among devotees as
prasadam. Such complexes are called
thevarapura, where the holy fire or
Agni is invoked.
Phases of evolution nalukettu complex rituals are performed seasonally. Noted for its standalone, singular, tile-roofed structure. All the Muthappan
madappuras have a similar structure. These structures are found mainly in
North Malabar region of Kerala. Temple architecture can be divided into three phases of stylistic development. The first phase is that of rock-cut temples. These early structures are all dated prior to the eighth century AD. Historically, cave architecture in India began with Buddhist cave temples; the technique of rock-cut architecture in Kerala seems to be a continuation of similar works in Tamil Nadu under the Pandyas. Rock-cut temples are mainly located in southern Kerala – at Vizhinjam and Ayirurpara near Tiruvananthapuram, Kottukal near Kollam, and Kaviyoor near Alappuzha. Of these, the one at Kaviyoor is the best example. The Kaviyoor cave temple dedicated to Siva comprises a shrine room and porch (
ardhamandapa) arranged axially facing west. On the pillared facade as well as on the walls inside the
ardhamandapa are sculptured reliefs of the donor, a bearded
rishi, a seated four-armed
Ganesh, and
dwarapalas. The other cave temples also have this general pattern of a shrine and an anteroom, and are also associated with Siva worship. In the north, similar rock-cut temples of the Saiva cult are seen at Trikkur and Irunilamkode in Thrissur district. The second phase spans the eighth to tenth centuries, and comprises temple structures patronised by the Chera, Ay and Mushika chieftains. During this phase, the
nalambalam – the quadrangular building which encloses the shrine (
sri-kovil), the
namaskara mandapa,
balikkal (altar stones), etc. – began to emerge, forming the basic layout of the Kerala temple. The earliest temples had a unitary shrine (
nirendhara), which in rare cases was attached by a porch (
ardhamandapa). A detached
namaskara mandapa is generally built in front of the
sri-kovil. The middle phase of temple evolution is characterised by the emergence of the Sandhara shrine. In the unitary shrine of the earlier type,
nirendhara (single level of
sri-kovil), there is a cell with a single doorway. But in the Sandhara shrine, the cell has twin wells leaving a passage in between them. Also, there are often four functional doors in all four cardinal directions and windows to provide subdued light in the passage. Sometimes the functional doors on the sides and the rear are replaced by pseudo-doors. The concept of the storeyed temple is also seen in this phase. The tower of the shrine rises to the second storey with a separate upper roof forming a
dwitala (two-storied temple). The Shiva shrine at Peruvanam is a unique example of
thrithala (three-storeyed temple), in which the lower two storeys are square and the third storey is octagonal. In the last phase (1300–1800 AD), the stylistic development reached its apogee with greater complexity in the temple layout and elaboration of detail. The
vilakkumadam (a palisade structure fixed with rows of oil lamps) was added as an outer ring beyond the
nalambalam. The altar stone was also housed in a pillared structure (
balikkal mandapam) in front of the
agrasala (
valiyambalam). A
deepastambham and
dwajasthambham (lamp post and flag mast) were added in front of the
balikkal mandapam. Within the
prakara but beyond the
vilakkumadam, the secondary shrines of
parivara devathas (sub-gods) stood in their assigned positions. These were generally unitary cells, though in a few cases each became a full-fledged shrine, such as in the case of Krishna shrine in the Siva temple at Tali, Kozhikode. The last phase culminated in the concept of the composite shrines, in which two or three shrines of equal importance were cloistered inside a common
nalambalam. The typical example of this is the Vadakkumnatha temple at Thrissur, wherein three shrines dedicated to Siva, Rama, and Sankaranarayana are located inside the
nalambalam. The
prakara may also contain temple tanks,
vedapadhasalas, and dining halls. Paradoxically, some shrines do not have a single secondary shrine, the unique example being the Bharatha shrine at Irinjalakuda. In the southernmost Kerala, the temple architecture was also influenced by the developments in Tamil Nadu. This influence is clearly seen at Sucheendram and Tiruvananthapuram. Here, lofty enclosures, sculptured corridors, and ornate
mandapas all in granite stone practically conceal the view of the original main shrine in typical Kerala style. Also, the entrance gate (
gopuram) is a tall tower, a style distinct from the usual two-storeyed structures.
Decoration Temple architecture is a synthesis of engineering and decorative arts. The decorative elements of Kerala temples are of three types: mouldings, sculptures, and painting. The moulding is typically seen in the plinth where in horizontal hands of circular and rectangular projections and recesses in varying proportions help to emphasize the form of the
adhisthana. Occasionally this plinth is raised over a secondary platform (
upapeedam) with similar treatment. Mouldings are also seen in the
mandapam, the handrails of the steps (sopanam), and even in the drain channels (
pranala) of the shrine cell. The sculptural work is of two types. One category is the low relief done on the outer walls of the shrine with masonry set in lime mortar and finished with plaster and painting. The second is the carving of timber elements: rafter ends, brackets, columns and capitals, door frames, wall plates, and beams. Decorative sculptural work is seen best in the ceiling panels of the
mandapas. Exquisite lacquer work in brick red and black colour was adopted for turned columns of timber. Metal craft was also used in sculpturing idols, motifs, cladding, and finials. All sculptural works were done strictly according to the canons of proportions (
ashtathala,
navathala, and
dasathala systems) applicable to different figures of men, gods, and goddesses, as prescribed in texts. Painting was executed in organic pigments on walls when the plaster was still wet – in soft subdued colours, making them into a class designated as Kerala murals. The theme of these paintings is invariably mythological and the epic stories unfold as one
circumambulates around the temple. The moulding, sculpture, and painting are also taken in vertical compositions to emphasise the different storey heights, projecting dormer windows which break the sloping roof, and the crowning finial. But in all cases, the decoration is secondary to the structural form. The sculptured walls are protected by the projecting caves, which shade them from bright exterior sunlight. This helps to impart the overall perceptual experience of light and shade revealing details only gradually to a keen observer.
Islamic Architecture , claimed to be the world's second and India's first mosque, was originally built in Kerala style, and was renovated recently to give an Arabic touch. The
Arabian Peninsula has had direct trade contact with the Kerala coast from very early times, as far as the time of
Muhammad or even before. As local Muslim legends and tradition go, a
Chera king embraced
Islam and made
a voyage to Mecca. On his return trip, accompanied by many
Islamic religious leaders including
Malik ibn Dinar, he fell sick and died. But he had given introductory letters for the party to proceed to
Kodungallur. The visitors arrived and handed over the letter to the reigning King who treated the guests with all respect and extended facilities to establish their faith in the land. The king arranged for the artisans to build the
first mosque at Kodungallur near the port and ear-marked the area around it for their settlement. The original mosque has undergone extensive repairs, but traces of the original construction from 11th century are seen in the plinth, columns, and roof, which are in the old traditional styles of Hindu temples. The
Arabic inscription on a copper slab within the
Madayi Mosque in
Kannur records its foundation year as 1124 CE. Islam spread in Kerala through the migration of new groups from the Arabian Peninsula and the gradual conversion of the native population in the permissive and all-accommodating Indian cultural ethos and social set up of Kerala. By twelfth century AD there were at least ten major settlements of Muslims distributed from
Kollam in the south to
Mangalore in the north, each centered on the mosque. Also, a branch of the ruling
kingdom at Arakkal,
Kannur, was converted to Islam. The primacy in trade, the spread of the faith, and the experience of the sea made Muslims a prominent class and dear to the rulers, especially of the
Kozhikode Zamorins. Consequently, by fifteenth century Islamic constructions reached considerable heights. The mosque architecture of Kerala exhibits none of the features of the
Arabic style nor those of the
Indo-Islamic architectures of the imperial or provincial school in North India. This is because mosques were constructed by local Malayali artisans under instruction of Muslim religious leaders. Since the only available models for places of worship were Hindu temples or theatre halls (
koothambalam), these models were adapted. The early mosques in Kerala consequently resemble the traditional building of the region. Arabic style of architecture was introduced to the
Malabar area of present-day Kerala during the 1970s West Asian emigration. In plan the mosque comprises a large
prayer hall with a
mihrab on the western wall (since
Mecca is west to Kerala) and surrounded by a covered
verandah. Generally it has a tall basement similar to the
adhistana of the Brahmanical temple and often the columns are treated with square and octagonal section as in
mandapa pillars. The walls are made of laterite blocks. The arch form is seen in only one exceptional case, at the
mosque at Ponnani. Wood was used extensively in the superstructure for the construction of the ceiling and roof. The roof in many cases is covered with sheets of copper incorporating finials in the ridge, completing the form of temple
shikhara with the
stupi. At
Tanur, the Jama Masjid even has a gate built in the manner of temple
gopuram, covered with copper sheeting. This mosque itself is a three-storeyed building with tiled roof crowned by five finials. The pulpit in the mosque present fine examples of wood carvings associated with Islamic architecture of Kerala. At the Jama Masjid at Beypore and Mithqal Mosque at Kozhikode, the pulpit (
mimbar) was built by the ship masters of the Arab vessels. All other construction work was done by the same local craftsmen who built Hindu temples and residences. The Arabic tradition of simplicity of plan had perhaps combined itself with local construction techniques, giving rise to a unique style of mosque architecture not found anywhere else in the world. It contrasts with
Indo-Islamic architecture, which drew inspiration from
Turkish and
Persian traditions and created highly ornamental style in North India. The typical Kerala mosques are seen at Kollampalli, near
Kollam, Panthalayani near
Koyilandy,
Kozhikode,
Tanur,
Ponnani, and
Kasargode as well as in most old Muslim settlements. In recent times, however, the austere architectural features of the old mosques are in the process of being replaced by Islamic architecture. The use of
arcuated forms,
domes, and
minarets of the imperial school of Indo-Islamic architecture are being projected as the visible symbols of Islamic culture. The
Jama Masjid at
Palayam is an example of this new trend. Perhaps the influence of Arabic style of Kerala construction is seen in a subtle manner in the secular architecture of Muslims. The bazar streets lined by buildings on both sides, the upper floor living rooms with view windows to the streets, the wooden screens used to provide privacy and shade in the
verandahs (specially of upper floors) – these are a few features superposed on traditional construction. These built forms would have been modelled in the pattern of the houses in Arab countries (such as
Egypt,
Iraq, and
Iran) having contact with this region. This trend is most conspicuous in market towns such as
Kozhikode,
Thalassery, and
Kasaragode. Still, Muslim domestic architectures generally follows the traditional Hindu styles, often adopting the designs of
ekasalas and
nālukettus. These buildings with extensive
alindams and verandahs are also seen generally surrounding the mosques in Muslim settlements.
Church architecture and Kerala styles. which was seen by Anglican Missionary Dr.
Claudius Buchanan in 1806 established in 1455 The evolution of Kerala church architecture comes from two sources: the work of Apostle St. Thomas and the Syrian Christians, and the missionary work of European settlers. Tradition has it that St. Thomas (who landed in Muziris in 52 AD) had seven Syrian churches built in Kerala – at Kodungallur, Chayil, Palur, Paravur-Kottakkavu, Kollam, Niranom and Kothamangalam – but none still exist. It is possible that some temples were adapted as Syrian churches for services by those who converted to Syriac Christianity. For example, the present Palur Syrian Church has preserved the
abhisheka patra (the letter of intonation) and certain Shaiva symbols as relics of the old church, which is said to have been a Hindu shrine adapted for Christian worship. Historical evidence suggests that the first wave of Christianity came from Edessa, Persia, in the fourth century AD due to the persecution of Syrian Christians in the Persian Empire. According to the narration of the Byzantine monk Cosmas, Kerala had many churches by the sixth century. According to the inscription of the times of Stanu Ravi, by the ninth century Syrian Christian communities enjoyed many rights and privileges. They also played a vital role in trade and commerce. The domestic buildings of the Syrian Christians were akin to the native architecture. However, original Syrians who had migrated to Kerala had brought with them some of the West Asian conventions in church architecture. Consequently, churches with regular
chancel and
nave began to be built and there evolved a distinctive style of church architecture. The peculiar feature of this style was the ornamental gable facade at the nave end, surmounted by a cross. An entry porch (
shala) in front of the nave was another feature of these early designs. The baptistry was a small chamber inside the nave near the entrance. Belfries were built on one side of the nave, but in smaller churches, the bell was hung in an opening in the nave gable.
Elements of Kerala church architecture Unlike temples, there is no uniform or standard layout for all churches in Kerala. Rather, most churches' architecture differs according to their sect and traditions apart from experimentation of new designs. Still, most churches, particularly the
Saint Thomas Christian churches of Kerala, do share several common features. These churches have a gable roof extending to the chancel – the most sacred part of the church – and the sacristy by its side. The tower over the chancel is higher than the roof of the nave, similar to the
shikhara over the
garbhagriha in a Hindu temple. The residence of the priest and the parish hall were located on one side of the church and the cemetery was on the other side. In their external feature, Syrian churches retained some of the indigenous features of the Hindu style. The church and the ancillary buildings were enclosed in a massive laterite wall. There was an open cross in front of the main entrance on a granite basement in the model of
balikkal (altar stone). The church also had the flag mast (
dwajastambha) in front. In the Orthodox Syrian church at Chengannur, Peter and Paul occupy the place of the guardian deities (
dwarapalas) of a Hindu shrine. Sometimes a gateway like the temple
gopuram, with a music room (
kottupura) on the upper storey, was also provided. The Marth Mariam church at Kuravilangad, originally built in 345 AD, has undergone renovations several times. The church has a rich collection of old relics including a statue of Virgin Mary and a cross carved in granite. The Knanaya Valiapally of Kaduthuruthy is another old church with the biggest cross formed from a single granite piece. The Valiapally of Piravom is also another old church with old Persian writings. Wood carving and mural paintings, two decorative traditions of temples, were also adopted in old churches. A famous piece of wooden carving is a large panel depicting the
Last Supper in St. Thomas Church, Mulanthuruthy. The All Saints Church at Udayamperur has a beam resting on wooden mouldings of heads of elephants and rhinoceros. Floral figures, angels, and apostles are the usual motifs of mural paintings. This form of decoration continued in later churches as well. In St. Sebastian's church at Kanjoor, a mural even depicts a battle between the British and Tippu Sultan.
Colonial influences in church architecture The Portuguese were the first to introduce European styles to the church architecture of Kerala, followed by the Dutch and British. The first church of this type in India was built by Franciscan missionaries in 1510 at Fort Kochi. It is a small unpretentious building of the medieval Spanish type. When
Vasco da Gama died in Kochi in 1524, his body was interred in this church and later removed to Lisbon in 1538. The church thus came to be known as "Vasco da Gama's Church". It was later seized by the Dutch and was used for reformed services. Later, with British occupation of Kochi, it became an Anglican church and presently it belongs to the Church of South India. The Portuguese introduced many innovations to Kerala church architecture. For the first time, the dominating tower above the altar, originally adapted from temple architecture, was discarded. Inside the church, the granite images were not favoured owing to their association with the Hindu art; instead, wooden images of saints were used. Generally, pulpits were erected and altar pieces were impressively ornamented. Ceilings and walls were painted with religious themes in the style of European masters. Pointed and rounded arches were introduced and stained-glass windows were installed. Subsequent development in church architecture during the British period also saw the introduction of a new church design. In place of the rectangular Basilican plan, the cross-shaped plan became increasingly popular, especially in places where large congregations had to be accommodated. Apart from the symbolism of the cross, this plan is better suited for visibility of the altar from all points in the church. Furthermore, sufficient space was now available at the transepts for additional altars for services by several priests on important occasions like Christmas. Externally, the central tower (or rather, the Roman dome) appeared at the centre of the transept, imparting a classic form of European architecture. Belfry towers rose on either side of the main front entrance. In the treatment of the exterior, typical features of European church architecture were introduced – Gothic arches, pilasters and buttresses, rounded openings, classic mouldings, and stained-glass windows – making the whole composition completely different from the native architecture. Style also depended on the period of construction, whether in the simplicity of Gothic style (as in the Palayam Church, Tiruvananthapuram) or in the luxury of Renaissance style (as in the Church of Our Lady of Dolorous at Trissoor).
Modern trends in church architecture While the character of church architecture is generally identified with the form evolved in medieval times, modern trends of adapting new plan shapes and structural forms are also present. At the Christ College Church in Irinjalakkuda, a circular plan shape with a dome shell roof has been adopted. The Cathedral of the Archbishop of Varapuzha at Ernakulam is a soaring
hyperbolic paraboloid of reinforced concrete, a sharp contrast with traditional forms. Experimentation in religious architecture is more present in church architecture than in temples or mosques, which more or less adhere to traditional evolved forms.
Jewish architecture During the time of the second Chera Kingdom, the old port city of Makotai (Kodungallur) had different parts occupied by foreign groups. For example, the cultural contact of Jews with Kerala predates the time of Solomen; by the fifteenth century, there were Jewish settlements in coastal towns such as Kodungallur and Kochi. The most important Jewish settlement is in Kochi near the Mattancherry Palace. Their residential buildings resemble the Kerala type in external appearance, but have a different plan concept. The ground floor rooms are used as shops or warehouses and the living rooms are on the first floor. The building fronts are continuous with adjoining buildings in the pattern of
row houses. The
synagogue is a simple tall structure with a sloping tile roof, but it has a rich interior with hand-painted tiles from
Canton and ancient chandeliers from Europe. Although distinctive, this architecture of the Jewish community had little influence on the broader architecture of Kerala. == Domestic architecture ==