Gerridae

The family Gerridae is physically characterized by having hydrofuge hairpiles, retractable preapical claws, and elongated legs and body. Hydrofuge hairpiles are small, hydrophobic microhairs. These are tiny hairs with more than one thousand microhairs per mm. Among widespread genera, the North Hemisphere Aquarius includes the largest species, generally exceeding , at least among females, and the largest species averaging about . Females are typically larger than males of their own species, Antennae '' Water striders have two antennae with four segments on each. Antennal segments are numbered from closest to the head to farthest. The antennae have short, stiff bristles in segment III. Relative lengths of the antennae segments can help identify unique species within the family Gerridae, but in general, segment I is longer and stockier than the remaining three. The four segments combined are usually no longer than the length of the water strider head. Thorax The thorax of water striders is generally long, narrow, and small in size. It generally ranges from 1.6 mm to 3.6 mm long across the species, with some bodies more cylindrical or rounder than others. Wing dimorphism consists of summer gerrid populations evolving different length wings than winter populations within the same species. Habitats with rougher waters are likely to hold gerrids with shorter wings, while habitats with calm waters are likely to hold long-winged gerrids. This is due to potential for damage of the wings and ability for dispersal. == Evolution ==

Cretogerris, from the Cretaceous (Albian) Charentese amber of France, was initially suggested as a gerrid. However, it was later interpreted as an indeterminate member of Gerroidea. The Gerridae are morphologically similar to the unrelated Chresmoda, an enigmatic genus of insect known from the Late Jurassic to the Mid Cretaceous with a presumably similar lifestyle. Molecular analysis suggest an origin of the family Gerridae about 128 Million years ago (Mya) in the Cretaceous, splitting from the sister group Veliidae, with whom they share a single origin of rowing as a locomotive mechanism. According on the transcriptome-based phylogeny, Gerridae is a monophyletic group. ==Wing polymorphism==

Wing polymorphism (i.e., the presence of multiple wing morphs in a given species) has independently evolved multiple times in Gerridae, as well as complete wing loss, something that has been important for the evolution of the variety in species we see today, and dispersal of Gerridae. The existence of wing polymorphism in a given species can be explained as a particular case oogenesis-flight syndrome. Following this rationale, which is commonly applied in insects, developing short wings provides the individual with the capacity to dedicate the energy stores that would usually be used for wing and wing muscle development to increasing egg production and reproducing early, ultimately enhancing the individual's fitness. The ability for one brood to have young with wings and the next not allows water striders to adapt to changing environments. Long, medium, short, and nonexistent wing forms are all necessary depending on the environment and season. Long wings allow for flight to a neighboring water body when one gets too crowded, but they can get wet and weigh a water strider down. Short wings may allow for short travel, but limit how far a gerrid can disperse. Nonexistent wings prevent a gerrid from being weighed down, but prevent dispersal. Wing polymorphism is common in the Gerridae despite most univoltine populations being completely apterous (wingless) or macropterous (with wings). Apterous populations of gerrids would be restricted to stable aquatic habitats that experience little change in environment, while macropterous populations can inhabit more changing, variable water supplies. Stable waters are usually large lakes and rivers, while unstable waters are generally small and seasonal. Gerrids produce winged forms for dispersal purposes and macropterous individuals are maintained due to their ability to survive in changing conditions. Wings are necessary if the body of water is likely to dry since the gerrid must fly to a new source of water. However, wingless forms are favored due to competition for ovarian development and wings and reproductive success is the main goal due to the selfish gene theory. Overwintering gerrids usually are macropterous, or with wings, so they can fly back to their aquatic habitat after winter. An environmental switch mechanism controls seasonal dimorphism observed in bivoltine species, or species having two broods per year. This switch mechanism is what helps determine whether or not a brood with wings will evolve. Temperature also plays an important role in photoperiodic switch. Temperatures signify the seasons and thus when wings are needed since they hibernate during winter. Ultimately, these switching mechanisms alter genetic alleles for wing characteristics, helping to maintain biological dispersal. ==Ability to move on water's surface==

Water striders are able to move on top of water due to a combination of several factors. Water striders use the high surface tension of water and long, hydrophobic legs to help them stay above water. Gerridae species use this surface tension to their advantage through their highly adapted legs and distributed weight. The legs of a water strider are long and slender, allowing the weight of the water strider body to be distributed over a large surface area. The legs are strong, but have flexibility that allows the water striders to keep their weight evenly distributed and flow with the water movement. Hydrofuge hairs line the body surface of the water strider. There are several thousand hairs per square millimeter, providing the water strider with a hydrofuge body that prevents wetting from waves, rain, or spray, which could inhibit their ability to keep their entire body above the water surface if the water stuck and weighed down the body. The tiny hairs on the legs provide both a hydrophobic surface as well as a larger surface area to spread their weight over the water. The middle legs used for rowing have particularly well developed fringe hairs on the tibia and tarsus to help increase movement through the ability to thrust. When the rowing stroke begins, the middle tarsi of gerrids are quickly pressed down and backwards to create a circular surface wave in which the crest can be used to propel a forward thrust. ==Life cycle ==

Gerrids generally lay their eggs on submerged rocks or vegetation using a gelatinous substance as a glue. Gravid females carry between two and twenty eggs. The eggs are creamy white or translucent, but become bright orange. This means that individuals tend to develop at the same rate through each instar stage. Each nymphal stage lasts 7–10 days and the water strider molts, shedding its old cuticle through a Y-shaped suture dorsal to the head and thorax. Nymphs are very similar to adults in behavior and diet, but are smaller (1 mm long), paler, and lack differentiation in tarsal and genital segments. It takes approximately 60 to 70 days for a water strider to reach adulthood, though this development rate has been found highly correlated to the water temperature the eggs are in. ==Ecology==

Habitat Gerridae generally inhabit surfaces of calm waters. The majority of water striders inhabit freshwater areas, with the exception of Asclepios, Halobates, Stenobates and a few other genera, which inhabit marine waters. The marine species are generally coastal, but a few Halobates live offshore (oceanic) and are the only insects of this habitat. Halobates, which are found on open sea, feed off floating insects, zooplankton, and occasionally resort to cannibalism of their own nymphs. Parasites Several endoparasites have been found in gerrids. Trypanosamatid flagellates, nematodes, and parasitic Hymenoptera all act as endoparasites. Nymphal population density also affects the dispersal of water striders. The higher density of water striders in the nymphal stage results in a higher percentage of brachypterous adults developing flight muscles. These flight muscles allow for the water striders to fly to neighboring bodies of water and mate, resulting in the spread of genes. This spread and mixing of genes can be beneficial due to a heterozygotic advantage. Generally, water striders will try to disperse in such a way to lower the density of gerrids in one area or pool of water. Most do this by flight, but those that lack wings or wing muscles will rely on the current of their water body or flooding. Eggs in Halobates are often laid on floating ocean debris and thus spread across the ocean by this drifting matter. ==Mating behavior==

Sex discrimination in some Gerridae species is determined through communication of ripple frequency produced on the water surface. Water striders will reproduce all year long in tropical regions where it remains warm, but only during the warm months in seasonal habitats. Gerrids that live in environments with winters will overwinter in the adult stage. This is due to the large energy cost which would need to be spent to maintain their body temperature at functional levels. These water striders have been found in leaf litter or under stationary shelters such as logs and rocks during the winter in seasonal areas. This reproductive diapause is a result of shortening day lengths during larval development and seasonal variation in lipid levels. Shorter day length signals the water strider of the coming temperature drops, also acting as a physical signal the body uses to store lipids throughout the body as food sources. Water striders use these lipids to metabolize during their hibernation. The length of the hibernation depends when the environment warms and the days become longer again. ==Social behavior==

Kin discrimination is rare in Gerridae, only really being seen in Halobates. Without hunger playing a role, several studies have shown that neither Aquarius remigis nor Limnoporus dissortis parents preferentially cannibalize on non-kin. Those two species are highly prevalent in American waters. These species do not show familial tendencies, leaving their young to forage on their own. Females cannibalize more on young than males do and, in particular, on first-instar nymphs. Young must disperse as soon as their wings are fully developed to avoid cannibalism and other territorial conflicts since neither parents nor siblings can identify members genetically related to themselves. Gerridae are territorial insects and make this known by their vibration patterns. Both female and male adult Gerridae hold separate territories, though usually the male territories are larger than the female. During the mating season, gerrids will emit warning vibrations through the water and defend both their territory and the female in it. Even though gerridae are very conspicuous, making their presence known through repel signals, they often live in large groups. These large groups usually form during the non-mating season since there is less need to compete. Instead of competing to reproduce, water striders can work together to obtain nutrition and shelter outside of the mating season. Water striders will attempt to disperse when these groups become too dense. They do so by flying away or cannibalizing. == In popular culture ==

• In the video game Super Mario 64, in the level "Wet-Dry World", there are enemies named Skeeter that are based on water striders and their movement. The name comes from "water skeeter", an alternative name for water striders. • In the 2002 film The Tuxedo, water striders are genetically modified by bioterrorists to have bacteria that can spread from person to person, causing severe dehydration and instant death. • In the third generation of Pokémon games developed by GameFreak and published by The Pokémon Company and Nintendo, the 2002 video games Pokémon Ruby and Pokémon Sapphire introduced Surskit, the first dual Bug/Water type Pokémon, which is based on the appearance and behavior of a water strider. == See also ==