Ancient Little information is available regarding the early centuries of Aksum's presumed evolution from a humble regional hub to a dominant power. Archeological findings at Gobadra (Gobo Dara) and the Anqar Baahti rock-shelters suggest Stone Age remnants in close proximity. R. Fattovich's excavations at amba 'Beta Giyorgis above Aksum validate the pre-Aksumite roots of a settlement in Aksum dating back to approximately 7th to 4th centuries B.C. Excavations in the Stele Park at the heart of Aksum substantiate ongoing activity in that area since the beginning of the common era. By the 1st century AD, Aksum was described as a "
metropolis" in the
Periplus of the Erythraean Sea. Several archaeological expeditions have conducted excavations in various parts of Aksum. The early utilization of stelae, or obelisks as grave markers, is documented, evolving over time to encompass some of the world's largest monuments. Initially, the granite stelae in the primary cemetery, housing the Aksumite royal tombs, and in other cemeteries around the town were plain and rough. Subsequently, they became plain but carefully dressed in granite, eventually carved to emulate multi-storey towers in a distinctive architectural style. The Aksumite architecture is characterized by massive dressed granite blocks, smaller uncut stones for walling, mud mortar to fix them, bricks for vaulting and arches, and an external wooden framework resembling "monkey-heads" or square corner extrusions. The walls tend to incline inwards as they ascend, often featuring several recessed bays for added strength. A comparable architectural style is evident in substantial "palace" structures not only in Axum but also in other cities like Adulis and Matara. The presence of a large reservoir, now known as May Sum, below the hill called May Oho, may trace back to Aksumite times, indicating the city's reliable water supply. Axum likely had a prosperous agricultural vicinity, evident from wheat depicted on Aksumite coins, abundant livestock, local forests supplying firewood for centuries, and various industries such as metalworking, glassware, and pottery. The Aksumites' achievements in architecture and stone-working, along with evidence of ivory and leather-working, are found in Aksumite tombs.
Cosmas Indicopleustes, who visited Aksum in the second decade of the 6th century, described the four-towered palace of the king of Ethiopia, adorned with bronze statues of unicorns. Aksum also housed rows of monumental granite thrones, likely bearing metal statues dedicated to pre-Christian deities such as Astar, Baher, Madr, and Mahram. These thrones incorporated large panels with inscriptions, some attributed to
Ousanas,
Ezana,
Kaleb, and his son
Wazeba, chronicling their wars and serving as victory monuments. One inscription mentions Ezana setting up a throne "here in Sado," presumably a place in Aksum. Libraries in Aksum housed essential Christian documents, and Coptic monks translated many of these books in the 5th and 6th century. The Bible was translated into Ge'ez language, and the sole, complete surviving copy of the
Book of Enoch is in the Ge'ez language.
Medieval The city rose to prominence again after the rise of the
Solomonic Dynasty, and became the spiritual capital of the
Ethiopian Empire. A collection of Ge'ez documents, encompassing a concise legendary history of Aksum, land charters, and other related material, known as the
Book of Axum, is occasionally discovered bound within manuscript books alongside the
Kebra Nagast and other works. This compilation provides numerous insights into the church's possessions and the subsequent history of the town. The city also had its own governor known as the
Nebure Id, who was also a high dignitary of the church. The
Kebra Nagast was written by
Nebure Id Yishaq of Aksum, but Aksum is never mentioned by name in the book. Instead, the "city of the kingdom" is called Dabra Makadda. The
Aksum Seyon was restored by
Dawit I in 1406. It has been rumored to house the Biblical
Ark of the Covenant, in which lie the
Tablets of Stone upon which the
Ten Commandments are inscribed.
Zara Yaqob underwent his coronation there in 1436 and continued to reside in Aksum for three years. Subsequently, a few other monarchs also chose Aksum as the site for their coronation ceremonies. This unique ritual involved cutting a cord held by the "daughters of Aksum," symbolizing the king's ascent to "king of Zion." The ancient Aksumite stone thrones served as coronation chairs, although the "coronation" itself comprised an anointing and tonsuring ritual, followed by a mass in the church. He also described
Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion, the stelae, the thrones and other structures. Describing the church, he wrote: "A very noble church, the first there was in Ethiopia: it is named Mary of Syon. They say that it is so named because its altar stone came from Sion. In this country (as they say) they have the custom always to name the churches by the altar stone, because on it is written the name of the patron saint. This stone which they have in this church, they say that the apostles sent it from Mount Sion. This church is very large; it has five aisles of good width and of great length, vaulted above, and all the vaults closed, the ceiling and sides all painted. Below, the body of the church is well worked with handsome cut stone; it has seven chapels, all with their backs to the east, and their altars well ornamented. It has a choir after our fashion, except that it is low, and they reach the vaulted roof with their heads; and the choir is also over the vault, and they do not use it. This church has a very large circuit, paved with flagstones like the lids of tombs. This consists of a very high wall, and it is not covered over like those of the other churches, but is left open. This church has a large enclosure, and it is also surrounded with another larger enclosure, like the enclosing wall of a large town or city. Within this enclosure are handsome groups of one storey buildings, and all spout out their water by strong figures of lions and dogs of stone [of different colours]. Inside this large enclosure there are two mansions, one on the right hand and the other on the left, which belong to the two rectors of the church; and the other houses are of canons and monks." Aksum was sacked and burned in 1535 by the troops of
Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi who destroyed the church that Alvares had described. Before the city was sacked, a document in the Book of Aksum lists 1,705 golden objects as well as many other items from Aksum that
Lebna Dengel distributed to various governors to save them from destruction, and it is recorded by Ahmad's chronicler that a large stone object was removed at this time for safety to "Tabr".
Manuel de Almeida who visited after the convulsions of
Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi confirmed the extent of the ruin that befell Aksum in the 16th century commenting that it then had only about 100 inhabitants where everywhere there are ruins to be seen.
18th century The French traveller visited Aksum (which he called "Heleni") in 1700, describing the stelae and the church.
James Bruce also left descriptions of the old town, which in his time consisted, he estimated, of about 600 houses. He believed Aksum to have been mainly the work of the Ptolemies, crediting most of the monuments to
Ptolemy III Euergetes. After the decline of imperial authority in the period of the
Zemene Mesafint, Aksum fell under the control of the rulers of Tigray. One of whom,
Wolde Selassie, would grant the church of St. Mary a land grant in 1794.
19th century by
Henry Salt, 1809 According to the missionary
Samuel Gobat, in the early 19th century Aksum was economically well off, as it was situated in a "vast fertile plain" which was "richly cultivated". Apart from the ruins, the settlement was made up almost entirely of round huts with thatched roofs. The warlord
Wube Haile Maryam, gave a land grant to the Church of St. Mary in an undated charter. On 12 January 1872,
Yohannes IV was crowned Emperor of Ethiopia in the city of Aksum. In February 1893 the British explorers,
James Theodore Bent and his wife
Mabel Bent, travelled by boat to
Massawa on the west coast of the Red Sea. They then made their way overland to excavate at Axum and
Yeha, in the hope of researching possible links between early trading networks and cultures on both sides of the Red Sea. They reached Axum by 24 February 1893, but their work was curtailed by the tensions between the Italian occupiers and local warlords, together with the continuing ramifications of the
First Italo-Ethiopian War and they had to make a hasty retreat by the end of March to
Zula for passage back to England. The British journalist Augustus B. Wylde wrote after visiting Aksum in 1897: "after every heavy downpour of rain, old coins are washed out of the soil, the local boys were delighted to accompany a stranger about the place. They were intelligent, sharp-eyed little urchins who took a great interest in the search for curiosities, though unless someone is there to reward them for finding the old coins they do not trouble to pick them up, as they are of no value to them."
20th century , Dr. Erich Kaschke, Dejazmach Gebreselassie Bariagaber (Governor of
Tigray),
Enno Littmann and
Daniel Krencker Aksumite remains were investigated in 1906 by an important German archaeological mission led by the renowned scholar
Enno Littmann. Early in the
Second Italo-Ethiopian War, Italian troops seized Aksum in October 1936. In 1937, a tall, 1,700-year-old
Obelisk of Axum, was broken into five parts by the Italians and shipped to
Rome to be erected. The obelisk is widely regarded as one of the finest examples of engineering from the height of the Axumite empire. Despite a 1947 United Nations agreement that the obelisk would be shipped back, Italy balked, resulting in a long-standing diplomatic dispute with the Ethiopian government, which views the obelisk as a symbol of national identity. During the
Ethiopian Civil War, on 30 March 1989, Axum was bombed from the air by the
Ethiopian Air Force and three people were killed.
21st century In April 2005, Italy finally returned the obelisk pieces to Axum amidst much official and public rejoicing; Italy also covered the US$4 million costs of the transfer. UNESCO assumed responsibility for the re-installation of this stele in Axum, and by the end of July 2008 the obelisk had been reinstalled. It was unveiled on 4 September 2008. During the
Tigray War, around 100–800 civilians were
massacred by the
Eritrean Army between 28 November and 15 December 2020. ==Main sites of Axum==