Initial fighting (3–28 November 2020) ;Northern Command attacks Just before midnight on 3 November 2020, Tigray Special Forces and allied local militia
attacked the Ethiopian National Defense Force (ENDF) Northern Command headquarters in Mekelle, the Fifth Battalion barracks in
Dansha, and other Northern Command bases. In retaliation, an Ethiopian offensive was launched on 4 November, which was accompanied by the declaration of a
state of emergency, the creation of the
State of Emergency Inquiry Board and a shutdown of government services in the Tigray Region. During the subsequent days, skirmishes continued and the Ethiopian federal parliament declared the creation of an
interim government for Tigray. Ethiopian offensives in the north were accompanied with airstrikes and several towns and cities were retaken. ;Early massacres On the night of 9 to 10 November 2020, 600 civilians, mostly
Amharas and
Welkait, were killed in a
massacre in the town of Mai Kadra with machetes and knives used by local militias and police that were loyal to the TPLF, according to preliminary investigations by
Amnesty International and the
Ethiopian Human Rights Commission; Two days later, refugees interviewed by the
Daily Telegraph,
The Guardian and
The New York Times stated that Amhara militias, including
Fano, and the ENDF Humera was shelled from the direction of the Eritrean–Ethiopian border for two days around 9–11 November. The ENDF gained control of the town one day later. Within the same month,
Amhara Region forces took over and occupied
Western Tigray. In the late hours of 13 November 2020, Tigray forces fired a rocket towards the airports of
Bahir Dar and
Gondar in the Amhara Region. On 14 November, Tigray forces launched
rockets at the Eritrean capital of
Asmara, but the missiles missed. The Tigray government claimed these locations contained military terminals that served as bases to carry out airstrikes. ;Mekelle offensive From 17 to 19 November, Ethiopian forces captured the
Raya district and the towns of
Shire,
Alamata,
Adwa, and
Axum, and began moving towards
Adigrat. Fighting between Tigray and Eritrea took place in
Adi Quala,
Zalambessa, Taruna, Ali Tina, Wadqomdi, and
Badme. On 23 November, Ethiopian forces reached the regional capital of Mekelle and
encircled it. A military spokesperson for Ethiopia South Command, Colonel Dejene Tsegaye, announced that Mekelle would be
shelled, and told Tigray civilians to flee the city because Ethiopian forces would show no mercy. The Tigray government vowed to continue fighting.
Tigrayan guerrilla warfare (November 2020 – June 2021) ;Formation of the Tigray Defense Forces After Ethiopian federal forces and their allies captured Mekelle and other major cities, forces loyal to the Tigray government began to regroup into mountainous areas of the region and reorganized under the banner of the
Tigray Defense Forces (TDF). The TDF also began to dig into their positions in rural Tigray, marking the start of a guerrilla campaign against Ethiopian-allied forces from the mountains. The Eritrean government stated that it was angered by
Amnesty International's report on the massacre, calling it "transparently unprofessional" and "politically motivated" and accusing Amnesty of fabricating evidence. However, refugees also spoke of the EDF killing 80–150 people in
Idaga Hamus on 30 November, as part of a larger series of extrajudicial killings known as the
Adigrat massacres. A witness told
Al Jazeera that, on 4 December, Eritrean troops entered her town in
southeastern Tigray and attempted to rape her; this statement is corroborated by other survivors and witnesses, who spoke of rampant sexual violence, massacres and destruction of civilian infrastructure committed by the EDF. In February 2021, the UN chief coordinator of humanitarian efforts
Mark Lowcock said that up to 40% of Tigray was not controlled by Ethiopian troops. Aside from Tigrayan rebel forces, he said that much of that area was under the control of the EDF, pursuing their own objectives independent of Ethiopian command. By early March, residents said that the number of Eritrean soldiers in Tigray was in the thousands. During this time, a violently enforced curfew was set up by Ethiopian forces along with Eritrean soldiers. On 18 February, unidentified militiamen ambushed a passenger bus in Adi Mesino, killing six and injuring 10. Ultimately, the early gains made by the ENDF and EDF against Tigrayan forces did not lead to a decisive defeat of the re-organized and invigorated TDF. In late January, the TDF had rallied and were intensifying their insurgency against Ethiopian forces despite the initial setbacks and heavy losses. Several of these clashes took place in mid-February at Samre, a small town south-west of Mekelle. Thousands of Ethiopian troops supported by artillery, tanks, and airstrikes fought dug-in forces loyal to the Tigray regional government. That same month, an undated video surfaced that purported to show Ethiopian troops executing 11 unarmed men before throwing their bodies off a cliff near Mahibere Dego. ;TDF regains territory Fighting intensified in early April; On 21 May, Ethiopia's military prosecutors convicted 3 soldiers of rape, and pressed charges against more than 50 others suspected of killing or raping civilians in Tigray.
Tigrayan counter-offensive (June – November 2021) ;Retaking of Mekelle ,
Dogu'a Tembien, partially destroyed by a bombing by the
Ethiopian Air Force in June 2021 On 22 June 2021, an Ethiopian military cargo plane was shot down over Samre, marking a turn of the war in the TDF's favor. On 28 June 2021, the Tigray Defense Forces retook the city of Mekelle. People celebrated in the streets of Mekelle as the TDF took the city. Ethiopian soldiers, police and administrators were seen leaving, ahead of the occupation by the TDF. Shortly after hearing news of the TDF advance, the Ethiopian government declared an immediate unilateral ceasefire across the Tigray Region.
BBC News reporter Vivienne Nunis characterised the ceasefire as an attempt by Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed to save face, the government having little other option. On 29 June, Tigrayan forces vowed to continue their offensive and drive into Eritrea or the Amhara Region if necessary, and said that Mekelle was 100% under the control of Tigrayan forces. On 30 June 2021, the TDF had entered the town of
Shire, some northwest of Mekelle, after it had been abandoned by Eritrean troops. The
International Crisis Group claimed that the TDF now controlled most of the Tigray region. ;Tigrayan push in Afar and Amhara On 6 July 2021, the Tigrayan government mobilised to retake
western Tigray from Amhara forces. A TDF offensive starting on 12 July resulted in Tigrayan forces capturing
southern Tigray, including the towns of
Alamata and
Korem. The TDF subsequently crossed the
Tekezé River and advanced westward, capturing the town of Mai Tsebri in the
Tselemti district, and prompting Amhara officials to call on its militias to arm themselves and mobilise. Following the TDF's rapid advances, Abiy threatened to resume war with Tigray and crush the rebels, raising fears of genocide. He called on other regions of Ethiopia to mobilise their special forces. The
Oromia,
Sidama, and
SNNPR regions answered the call and mobilised. From 17 to 19 July, the TDF began launching attacks in the
Afar Region to its east, prompting the
Benishangul-Gumuz,
Gambela,
Harari and
Somali regions to join the war. Heavy fighting in western Afar displaced over 54,000 people, and resulted in the TDF reportedly capturing three districts in the region. While the Tigray government claimed it only entered Afar to target federal forces, experts believe their aim was to sever a portion of National Highway A1, a vital trade route for landlocked Ethiopia, linking the capital of
Addis Ababa to the
Port of Djibouti, from which most of its petroleum products are imported. Following the TDF's counter-attack on two districts of his region, the Amhara regional President, Agegnehu Teshager, called for the total mobilisation of all people of all ages who are armed in the region to fight against the Tigrayans. A similar call was made in Afar. Meanwhile, the city of
Weldiya was captured by the TDF on 12 August 2021. On 4 August 2021, some
Agew people declared themselves independent from the Amhara Region and formed the Agew Liberation Front (ALF). The next day,
Lalibela was reported to have been seized by Tigrayan forces. On 9 August,
UNICEF executive director
Henrietta Fore expressed concern about reports that over 200 people, including 100 children, had been killed in attacks on displaced families sheltering at a health facility and a school in the Afar Region. On 11 August, the TDF and the Oromo Liberation Army (OLA) announced an alliance to overthrow Abiy Ahmed's government, saying they were also in talks with other rebel groups to establish a "grand coalition". With the TDF advancing deeper into Amhara, various cities across the region began enforcing curfews. On 9 September 2021, the Ethiopian government claimed Tigrayan forces had been "routed" and heavily defeated in the Afar Region. TPLF spokesperson
Getachew Reda said its forces had seen no fighting in Afar and had redeployed to the adjoining Amhara Region. On 30 September, amid UN concerns about a blockade of aid deliveries to Tigray, the Ethiopian government expelled 7 top UN officials, reportedly because of "meddling" in its internal affairs, giving the officials 72 hours to leave the country. ;October 2021 government-allied offensive On 8 October 2021, Getachew said that an intensive air campaign by the
Ethiopian Air Force began against TDF positions in the
North Wollo and
North Gondar zones of the Amhara Region, mostly around the towns of
Wegeltena,
Wurgessa and Haro. He also stated there was a "massive build up of forces on all fronts." General
Tsadkan Gebretensae, member of the central command of the TDF said both sides had been preparing for the offensive for months, and predicted that battle would be "decisive". and further deepened fears of the developing
famine in Tigray, with a federal government blockade still preventing most aid from arriving. A humanitarian worker citing witnesses said the EDF were fighting the TDF in
Berhale, a town in Afar northeast of Mekelle. On 31 October, the TDF claimed to have captured
Kombolcha, a town east of Dessie, and the Ethiopian government accused the TDF of massacring over 100 youths in the town. On the same day, the Amhara regional government declared a state of emergency, which included a region-wide curfew. South of Kombolcha, the OLA claimed to have seized control over
Kemise on the A2 Highway which links Mekelle to the Ethiopian capital of Addis Ababa, Meanwhile, it was reported that a new
roundup of ethnic Tigrayans had occurred in Addis Ababa. Authorities in Addis Ababa also told residents to register their weapons in order to fend off the anticipated offensive. Four other
regional governments also made a call to arms. On 22 November, Prime Minister Abiy stated that he will be leading the fight against the rebels from the battlefront after the TDF claimed to have captured
Shewa Robit, saying; "We are now in the final stages of saving Ethiopia." Many countries also urged citizens to leave the country. On 6 December, government forces claimed to have recaptured the strategic cities of
Dessie and
Kombolcha. This was later confirmed by TPLF spokesman
Getachew Reda; however, he claimed this was a strategic withdrawal, which was "part of their plan". On 12 December,
Reuters reported that forces loyal to the TPLF had recaptured the town of Lalibela less than two weeks after government forces and their allies had recaptured control of the town for themselves. Nevertheless, by the end of the month, the federal government had successfully repelled the incursion towards Addis Ababa, and Tigrayan forces were pushed back to Tigray. ;Fighting slows down On 20 December 2021, the TPLF announced they had withdrawn their troops from Amhara and Afar, saying they were hoping to create, as stated by TPLF chairman Debretsion Gebremichael, "a decisive opening for peace". Debretsion also requested the establishment of a
no-fly zone over Tigray, as well as a weapons embargo against Ethiopia and Eritrea. Following these developments, the ENDF stated that it would not advance any deeper into the Tigray region. However, in January 2022, the
Ethiopian Air Force began launching a bombing campaign in the Tigray Region, killing 108 people, including
at least 56 from an airstrike targeting an
IDP camp in
Dedebit. On 7 January – the same day as the Dedebit airstrike – Ethiopia released a number of opposition leaders from prison, including some from the TPLF, and said they desired to have a dialogue with the Tigrayan leadership. On 26 January, the Ethiopian
council of ministers also proposed to end the state of emergency.
Ceasefire period (March – August 2022) On 24 March 2022, the Ethiopian government declared an indefinite humanitarian truce, in order to allow the delivery of humanitarian aid into Tigray. Though there were initial hopes of finding a peaceful solution to ending the war, the talks soon became characterized by steadily increasing hostilities between the negotiation parties. By August, talks started to break down, with both the Ethiopian government and the TPLF accusing each other of refusing to make peace.
Resurgence of fighting (August – November 2022) (26 August 2022) In late August 2022, after months of ceasefire, fighting resumed. Both sides blamed each other for initiating the fighting, and both also expressed frustration "for a lack of progress towards negotiations to end the 21-month conflict." Civilians reported that pro-government militias, such as
Fano, had gotten involved as well. Exacerbating tensions were severe food shortages, an issue that remained unsolved have particularly affected the Tigray region. ;Joint Eritrean–Ethiopian offensive On 27 August, the TDF captured the town of Kobo, following the ENDF's withdrawal. Ethiopia and Eritrea subsequently announced an offensive in North Tigray on 1 September. On 13 September 2022, the TPLF said Eritrea had taken
Sheraro. The town's capture by Eritrea and the fighting in nearby areas displaced around 210,000 people, most of whom fled to the city of
Shire. A day later Ethiopian airstrikes on Mekelle killed at least ten people. By mid-September, reports emerged of Eritrea engaging in mass mobilization of the country's reservists to be sent to Tigray. (13 September 2022) On 20 September, the government of Tigray said Eritrea had invaded the region, and that heavy fighting was taking place across northern Tigray. The TDF had, thus far, largely resisted the offensive, and reportedly launched a counterattack to retake Sheraro. Meanwhile, Ethiopian and Eritrean forces began massing in
Abala and Berhale in the Afar Region, within striking distance of Mekelle. On 27 September, an airstrike – allegedly carried out by Eritrea – struck the northern town of Adi Dairo while it was celebrating
Meskel, killing at least six civilians and injured 19 more. On 2 October, the TPLF announced it had withdrawn troops from Amhara's
North Wollo Zone, including Kobo, to be redeployed north to reinforce lines under heavy Eritrean attack but warned it would return if their southern border is threatened. Three days later, a
second airstrike hit Adi Dairo, killing between 50 and 65 people according to aid workers in the town. ;Full-scale mobilization On 10 October, the TPLF claimed that Eritrea was escalating its offensive, sending more forces towards
Rama,
Tserona, and Zalambessa in the far north, with one aid worker saying it is the heaviest fighting since hostilities resumed. Later reports confirmed that Eritrea was intensifying its efforts to
mobilize more troops for the war; it detained "elderly mothers and fathers", and sought
draft-dodgers. Tigray mobilized its citizens too, calling on every able-bodied person to join the fight. Amidst the three-front offensive launched by Ethiopia and Eritrea, estimates put the number of Ethiopian casualties at over 90,000 in a single month, while Tigrayan casualties were also deemed incredibly high. According to
peace and conflict studies researcher
Kjetil Tronvoll, it is likely that 100,000 people had been killed over the preceding few weeks, and alleged that Eritrea and Ethiopia were using
human wave attacks to overwhelm Tigrayan defenses. On 17 October, Ethiopia said that it would seize every airport and other key infrastructure in the region; that same day, the strategic city of Shire was taken by Eritrea and Ethiopia, leading to the evacuation of thousands of its inhabitants. Ethiopian forces then took
Alamata and
Korem in the south. By 22 October, ENDF and EDF-allied forces had also captured
Adwa and
Axum, even as peace talks with the TPLF were about to commence in South Africa. Witnesses from a number of towns told the
Associated Press that Eritrean forces were regularly killing civilians between 23 and 29 October.
Second ceasefire (November 2022) On 25 October 2022,
AU Commission Chairperson,
Moussa Faki, announced that
peace talks involving the Ethiopian government and the TPLF had commenced in
Pretoria, South Africa. Hopes that these talks could definitively stop the war, however, remained low, as fighting did not appear to slow down, and Ethiopia vocalized their distrust about the peace process. Still, negotiations continued onward, and on 2 November, Ethiopia and the TPLF announced that they had signed an agreement for a cessation of hostilities (made effective the next day on 3 November, marking the second anniversary of the war); By 29 December, federal police were reported to have returned to Tigray, while flights and internet access had also been restored. Despite important steps towards peace and deescalation being made between the government and the TPLF, Amhara and Eritrean forces continued to launch attacks on Tigrayans in the months after the agreement was signed. == Spillover ==