Convair B-58 Hustler

Origins The genesis of the B-58 was the Generalized Bomber Study (GEBO II) issued in February 1949 by the Air Research and Development Command (ARDC) at Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio, for the development of a supersonic, long-range, manned bomber aircraft. ARDC sought the best attainable quantitative data, challenging the industry to devise their own solutions to attain the stated goal. According to aviation authors Bill Gunston and Peter Gilchrist, while some military officials were keenly interested in the prospective use of supersonic bombers, others held doubts about the propulsion systems and materials science required for supersonic operations, as well as the much higher fuel consumption relative to subsonic counterparts. Despite the skepticism, multiple contractors submitted bids for GEBO II, which was viewed as an influential step towards a development contract. These included Boeing, Convair, Curtiss, Douglas, Martin, and North American Aviation. Most of the submissions were relatively straightforward, unambitious, and expensive. Convair, which had built the XF-92A and other delta-wing fighters, evaluated swept and semidelta configurations, then settled on the delta wing, which offered good internal volume for support systems and fuel. It also provided low wing loading for the airframe size, permitting supersonic flight in the midstratosphere at . The recently formulated area rule was also applied to the design, resulting in aerodynamic reprofiling and an even more slender fuselage. Having been refined, Convair redesignated their renewed submission MX-1964. According to Gunston and Gilchrist, Boeing's submission was viewed as equally good, but their separate contract to produce the Boeing B-52 Stratofortress had undoubtedly influenced this competition. In December 1952, Convair was chosen to meet the new SAB-51 (Supersonic Aircraft Bomber) and SAR-51 (Supersonic Aircraft Reconnaissance) standards, the first general operational requirements for supersonic bombers. In February 1953, the USAF issued a contract for Convair's design, designated B-58 on 10 December 1952. The B-58 program, unlike those for prior military aircraft, was the first weapon-system contract. Under this arrangement, Convair acted as the prime contractor responsible for all program elements, not just the aircraft. Convair was required to devise or subcontract everything associated with the aircraft's operation, from the engines to training manuals, spare components, and software, in excess of one million items. The program was performed under high security; prior to the roll out, no unauthorized individual had knowledge of its shape or basic configuration. The difficult and protracted flight-test program involving 30 aircraft continued until April 1959. In total, 116 B-58s were produced - 30 trial aircraft and 86 production B-58A models. Most of the trial aircraft were later upgraded to operational standards. Eight were equipped as TB-58A training aircraft. The final B-58 was delivered in October 1962. ==Design==

Overview B-58 aircraft promotional film reel. The Convair B-58 Hustler was a high-speed strategic bomber, capable of routinely attaining Mach 2 at altitude. It incorporated a large delta wing with a leading-edge sweep of 60°, and was powered by an arrangement of four General Electric J79-GE-1 turbojet engines. Although its sizable wing generated relatively low wing loading, it proved to be surprisingly well suited for low-altitude, high-speed flight. To protect against the heat generated while cruising at Mach 2, the crew compartment, wheel wells, and electronics bay were pressurized and air conditioned. The B-58 was one of the first extensive applications of aluminum honeycomb panels, which bonded outer and inner aluminum skins to a honeycomb of aluminum or fiberglass. Various features of the B-58 were considered to be record-breaking, according to Gunston and Gilchrist. The structure itself made up 13.8% of the aircraft's gross weight, an exceptionally low figure for the era, while the wing was considered to be extremely thin, as well. Several key features of the engine, including the nacelle and the inlet, were unlike any existing aircraft, having been devised from guidance by aerodynamicists. Crew provisions The B-58 was operated by a crew of three: pilot (the aircraft commander or "AC"), radar navigator/bombardier ("Nav"), and defense systems operator ("DSO"). They were seated in separated tandem cockpits. The AC's cockpit, which was provided with very deep windows, was considered to be mostly conventional for a large multiengine aircraft. Later versions of the B-58 provided each crew member with a novel ejection capsule that could eject at an altitude of at speeds up to Mach 2. Unlike standard ejection seats of the period, a protective clamshell enclosed the seat and the control stick with an attached oxygen cylinder, allowing the AC to continue to fly even "turtled up" and ready for immediate egress. The capsule was buoyant; the crewmember could open the clamshell and use it as a life raft. Unusually, the ejection system was tested with live bears and chimpanzees; it was qualified for use during 1963. While it has occasionally been written that one of these test bears became the first living being to survive a supersonic ejection, The electronic controls were ambitious and advanced for the day. The Nav and DSO's cockpits featured wraparound dashboards with warning lights and buttons, and automatic voice messages and warnings from a tape system were audible through the helmet sets. Research during the era of all-male combat aircraft assignments revealed that a woman's voice was more likely to gain the attention of young men in distracting situations. Nortronics Division of Northrop Corporation selected actress and singer Joan Elms to record the automated voice warnings. To those flying the B-58, the voice was known as "Sexy Sally". The original voice recordings are archived. Adverse flight characteristics B-58 crew ejection and escape mechanism information film reel. While the B-58's performance and design were exceptional for the era, it was not an easy aircraft to fly. This was caused by the 60° leading-edge sweepback of its wing and was inherent in these types of delta wing platforms. It required a much higher angle of attack than a conventional aircraft, up to 9.4° at Mach 0.5 at low altitudes. If the angle of attack was too high, in excess of 17°, the bomber could pitch up and enter a spin. Several factors could prevent a successful recovery; if the pilot applied elevon, if the center of gravity was not correctly positioned, or if the spin occurred below , recovery might not be possible. The B-58 also possessed unconventional stall characteristics; if the nose was elevated, the bomber maintained forward motion without pitching down. Unless large amounts of power were applied, the descent rate increased rapidly. The aircraft had unusual takeoff requirements, with a 14° angle of attack needed for the rotation near for a combat weight. This poor takeoff performance was evident with the high landing speed, necessitating a drogue parachute for braking, which was also required for B-47 and B-52 aircraft. To accommodate the high landing speed, the specially configured landing gear had to handle excessive conditions; both the inflation pressure and wheel rotation speed were far greater than in prior units. The AN/ASQ-42 was estimated to be 10 times more accurate than any previous bombing/navigation system. It was remotely controlled through the Emerson MD-7 automated radar fire-control system, only requiring the DSO to lock on a selected target blip on his scope and then fire the gun. The system computed aiming, velocity, or heading differential, and range compensation. This had the added benefit of allowing the pilot to "clean up" the aircraft for fuel efficiency or in case of emergency, while still retaining the (somewhat) slimmer weapon. From 1961 to 1963, the B-58 was retrofitted with two tandem stub pylons under each wing root, adjacent to the centerline pod, for B43 or B61 nuclear weapons. This allowed for a total of five nuclear weapons per aircraft. Although the USAF looked at using the B-58 for conventional strikes, it was never equipped for carrying or dropping conventional bombs. A photo reconnaissance pod, the LA-331, was also fielded. Several other specialized pods for electronic countermeasures or an early cruise missile were considered, but not adopted. The late-1950s High Virgo air-launched ballistic missile was designed to be launched from the B-58; a Hustler carried out four test launches to determine ballistic missile and antisatellite weapon-system capability. ==Operational history==

Introduction On 1 August 1960, the B-58 was declared operational, nine months after the delivery of the first aircraft to the USAF. The B-58 was found to be difficult to fly, and its three-man crews were constantly busy, but its performance was exceptional. A lightly loaded Hustler could climb at nearly 46,000 ft/min (235 m/s). Excessive program expenditure In addition to its much smaller weapons load and more limited range than the B-52, the B-58 had been extremely expensive to acquire, with a unit cost of 12.44 million (equivalent to $ million today). Through FY 1961, the total cost of the B-58 program was $3 billion ($ billion in dollars). A highly complex aircraft, it also required considerable maintenance, much of which required specialized equipment and ground personnel. For comparison, the average maintenance cost per flying hour for the B-47 was $361, for the B-52 it was $1,025, and for the B-58 it was $1,440. The B-58 cost 40-percent more to operate than the B-52. The cost of maintaining and operating the two operational B-58 wings (39 aircraft per wing, for a total of 78 aircraft) equaled that of six wings of B-52s (15 aircraft per wing, equaling 90 aircraft). Because of the support costs of six wings vs only two wings, the actual cost per aircraft of the B-52s was $1.42 million per year vs $1.21 million per year for the B-58 (this figure included special detailed maintenance for the nose landing gear, which retracted in a complex fashion to avoid the center payload). Compounding these exorbitant costs, the B-58 had a high accident rate; 26 B-58 aircraft were lost in accidents, or 22.4% of total production, and more than half of the losses occurred during flight tests. The SAC senior leadership had been doubtful about the aircraft type from the beginning, although its crews eventually became enthusiastic about the aircraft. General Curtis LeMay was never satisfied with the bomber, and after a flight in one declared that it was too small, far too expensive to maintain in combat readiness, and required an excessive number of aerial refuelings to complete a mission. Although the high-altitude ferry range of the B-58 was better than that of the B-47, the lack of forward basing resulted in a requirement for more KC-135 tanker support. Operational wings and retirement Two SAC bomb wings operated the B-58 during its operational service - the 43rd Bombardment Wing (which later transitioned to the 43rd Airlift Wing), based at Carswell AFB, Texas, from 1960 to 1964, and Little Rock AFB, Arkansas, from 1964 to 1970; and the 305th Bombardment Wing, based at Bunker Hill AFB (later Grissom AFB), Indiana, from 1961 to 1970. The 305th also operated the B-58 combat crew training school, the predecessor of the USAF's formal training units. By the time the early problems had largely been resolved and SAC interest in the bomber had solidified, Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara decided that the B-58 was not a viable weapon system. During the B-58's introduction, high-altitude Soviet surface-to-air missiles became a threat, especially the S-75 Dvina (NATO reporting name SA-2 Guideline), a system the Soviet Union extensively deployed. The solution to this problem was to fly at low altitudes, out of the line-on-sight of the S-75s. Because of dense air at low altitudes, the B-58 could not fly at supersonic speeds and its moderate range was reduced further, negating the costly high-speed performance of the aircraft. Despite efforts of some officials within the USAF to secure a reprieve, the phaseout proceeded on schedule. The last B-58s were retired in January 1970, after which they were placed into storage with the Military Aircraft Storage and Disposition Center at Davis-Monthan Air Force Base. The fleet survived intact until 1977, when nearly all remaining aircraft were sold to Southwestern Alloys for disposal. As a weapon system, the B-58 was replaced by the FB-111A. This aircraft was designed for low-altitude attack, to be more flexible with the carriage of conventional weapons, and less expensive to produce and maintain. Since B-58 pilots were the only USAF pilots experienced in long-duration supersonic flight, several former Hustler crew members were selected by Colonel Douglas Nelson to fly the Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird at the start of that program. Test aircraft Several B-58s were used for special trials. One was specially modified to test the Hughes radar system intended for the Lockheed YF-12 interceptor and the North American F-108 Rapier, which had an extended nose to accommodate the radar and was nicknamed "Snoopy" (see Aircraft on Display). Several improved (and usually enlarged) variants, named B-58B and B-58C by the manufacturer, were proposed, but never built. near Ashland, Nebraska, averaged 938 kn flying 8,028 nmi from Tokyo to London in 8 hours and 35 minutes in October 1963. This photo shows the three crew hatches open World records The B-58 set 19 speed records, including cross-US, and the longest supersonic flight in history. In 1963 it flew from Tokyo to London (via Alaska), a distance of , with five aerial refuelings in 8 hours, 35 minutes, 20.4 seconds, averaging . , this record still stands. The aircraft was serving in an operational unit and had not been modified in any way besides being washed and waxed. One of the goals of the flight was to push the limit of its new honeycomb construction technique. The speed of the flight was limited only by the speed at which they believed the honeycomb panels would delaminate, although one of the afterburners malfunctioned and the last hour of the flight was continued at subsonic speed. This reduced the average speed to roughly Mach 1.5, despite most of the flight being at Mach 2. This B-58 was called Greased Lightning, which was the codename for the record attempt. A B-58 set the FAI record for altitude with a payload: . Some of the record-winning aerospace trophies the B-58 won were the Bleriot Trophy, the Thompson Trophy, the Mackay Trophy, the Bendix Trophy, and the Harmon Trophy. Singer John Denver's father, Lieutenant Colonel Henry J. Deutschendorf Sr., USAF, held several speed records as a B-58 pilot. ==Variants==

• XB-58: Prototype; two built • YB-58A: Pre-production aircraft; 11 built • B-58A: Three-seat medium-range strategic bomber aircraft; 86 built • TB-58A: Training aircraft, eight conversions from YB-58A • NB-58A: This designation was given to a YB-58A used to test the General Electric J93 engine, originally intended for the North American XB-70 Valkyrie Mach 3 bomber. • RB-58A: Variant with ventral reconnaissance pod; 17 built • B-58B: Unbuilt. Larger and faster than the B-58A, this version would have had uprated J79-GE-9 engines, a longer fuselage for extra fuel capacity, canards, and the ability to carry conventional weapons. A prototype B-58B was ordered (S/N 60-1109) and a total purchase of 185 envisioned, but the entire project was canceled before construction began, due to budgetary considerations. The B variant was also planned to be the mothership for a Mach 4 parasite called the FISH, for First Invisible Super Hustler. That FISH had three ramjets that would be ignited at an altitude of at least and speeds over Mach 2. The Super Hustler would then drop from the B-58B, climb to , and accelerate to Mach 4.2 to complete its mission. • B-58C: Unbuilt. Proposed as a cheaper alternative to the XB-70, this enlarged version would have carried more fuel and J58 engines, the same ones used on the Lockheed SR-71. Design studies were conducted with two- and four-engine designs. Capable of carrying conventional weapons, the C model had an estimated top speed approaching Mach 3, a supercruise capability of about Mach 2, a service ceiling of about , and a maximum range of . As enemy defenses against high-speed, high-altitude penetration bombers improved, the value of the B-58C diminished and the program was canceled in early 1961. • B-58D: Unbuilt. Proposed as an interceptor aircraft, taking advantage of its speed and high altitude performance. The Model 58-9 was expected to have a maximum take-off weight of , and would have a range of at a cruising speed of Mach 2.4. ==Operators==

; • United States Air Force • 43rd Bombardment Wing – Carswell AFB, Texas (1960–1964); Little Rock AFB, Arkansas (1964–1970) • 63rd Bombardment Squadron, Medium • 64th Bombardment Squadron, Medium • 65th Bombardment Squadron, Medium • 6592nd Test Squadron • 3958th Operational Test and Evaluation Squadron (1958–1960) • 305th Bombardment Wing – Bunker Hill (later Grissom AFB), Indiana (1961–1970) • 364th Bombardment Squadron, Medium • 365th Bombardment Squadron, Medium • 366th Bombardment Squadron, Medium • Air Force Flight Test Center – Edwards AFB, California (1956–1958) ==Accidents and incidents==

Out of 116 B-58 Hustlers produced, 24 were lost in crashes. This represents a loss rate of approximately 21% of the total number produced. On 27 October 1959, a B-58 was being flown from Carswell Air Force Base near Fort Worth, Texas, to Eglin Air Force Base in Florida. Three civilian crew members were aboard: the pilot, Everette Wheeler, and two flight engineers, Michael Keller and Harry Blosser. At about 7:30 p.m., the plane was flying at about when it developed a problem, and all three crew members ejected from the plane. Keller and Wheeler both landed safely, though Wheeler suffered a broken arm, but Blosser didn't survive. His body was found early the next morning in a field, still strapped into his ejection seat and the parachute open. The plane crashed in Mississippi, on a field in Lake Shady (today Lake Serene) about south of U.S. Route 98, leaving a crater deep and wide. After the crash, between 30 and 40 Air Force personnel were sent to investigate. They set up a temporary headquarters in the Oak Grove School auditorium. Anyone who found wreckage was asked to turn it in. On 22 April 1960, a B-58 crashed into Great Salt Lake, Utah. Only the DSO (Defensive System Operator) survived. On 3 June 1961, B-58A 59-2451 The Firefly crashed near the Paris Air Show, killing all three on board. The aircraft had, only eight days earlier and with a different crew, made a supersonic transatlantic crossing between Washington, D.C. and Paris in a Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI) World Record Speed of 1,687.69 kilometers per hour (1,048.68 miles per hour) in 3 hours, 39 minutes, 49 seconds. In September 1961, a B-58 on training flight from Carswell Air Force Base suffered a fire and failure of the left main gear. A chase aircraft was sent to examine the aircraft in flight. Through the night, eight sessions of aerial refuelling were conducted, using an improved technique and, once daylight broke, a successful emergency landing was made at Edwards Air Force Base. The Air Force made a training film about the incident, including a film of the landing. On 8 December 1964, a B-58 carrying nuclear weapons slid off an icy runway on Bunker Hill Air Force Base in Bunker Hill, Indiana and caught fire during a training drill. The five nuclear weapons on board were burned, including one 9-megaton thermonuclear weapon, causing radioactive contamination of the crash area. On 15 June 1965, at the Paris Air Show, Lieutenant Colonel Charles D. Tubbs was killed and two other crewmen injured when their B-58 crashed. The aircraft landed short of the runway, struck the instrument approach beacons, and burst into flames. On 22 July 1965, B-58 #60-1128 departed runway during landing and was destroyed. All three occupants were unharmed. On 12 December 1966, a B-58 crashed in field near McKinney, Kentucky killing all three crew members. On 14 June 1967, a B-58 was abandoned in flight. Three crew members ejected and one of them was killed when his parachute did not open. On 3 April 1969, a B-58 crashed near Rokeby, Nebraska. The aircraft's left wing was torn off before crashing. All three crew members managed to eject and parachute to safety. On 18 April 1969, B-58A #61-2056 crashed in field near Danville, Illinois. All three occupants were able to eject and parachute to safety. ==Aircraft on display==

, Ohio Today there are eight B-58 survivors: ;TB-58A • 55-0663 – Grissom Air Museum, Grissom Air Reserve Base (former Bunker Hill AFB / former Grissom AFB), Peru, Indiana. This is the oldest remaining aircraft and the fourth B-58 built. ;B-58A • 55-0665 Snoopy – Edwards Air Force Base, California, . Built as a YB-58A, later redesignated B-58A. This aircraft sits derelict as a photo target on Edwards AFB's photo range. • 55-0666 – Built as a YB-58A, later redesignated B-58A. Under restoration at Castle Air Museum at the former Castle Air Force Base in Atwater, California. Formerly on display at the former Chanute Air Force Base and then at the former Octave Chanute Aerospace Museum, Rantoul, Illinois. • 59-2437 Firefly II – Lackland AFB/Kelly Field Annex (former Kelly Air Force Base), San Antonio, Texas. • 59-2458 Cowtown Hustler – National Museum of the United States Air Force, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio. This aircraft flew from Los Angeles to New York City and back on 5 March 1962, setting three separate speed records, and earning the crew the Bendix Trophy and the Mackay Trophy for 1962. The aircraft was flown to the Museum on 1 March 1969. The aircraft is on display in the Museum's Cold War gallery. • 61-2059 Greased Lightning – Strategic Air Command & Aerospace Museum near Ashland, Nebraska. It averaged 938 nmph flying 8,028 nmi. from Tokyo to London in 8 hours and 35 minutes in October 1963. • 61-2080 – Pima Air & Space Museum, adjacent to Davis-Monthan Air Force Base, in Tucson, Arizona. It was the last B-58 to be delivered. ==Specifications (B-58A)==

==Notable appearances in media==

Jimmy Stewart, a bomber pilot during World War II and a brigadier general in the Air Force Reserve, appeared in the Air Force documentary film B-58 Champion of Champions. In the film, Stewart flew in the back seat of the B-58 on a typical low-altitude attack. In the film Fail Safe, the attack on Moscow is made by a squadron of "Vindicator" bombers, fictitious aircraft. While exterior shots of the plane relied on footage of B-58s, interior shots depicted a three-man crew, similar to that of a conventional airliner, and distinct from the tandem seating on a real B-58. The fictional Vindicator bomber was again represented by the B-58 in Fail Safe, a 2000 made-for-TV remake starring George Clooney. Model kits from the 1960s of the B-58 from Aurora & Revell were modified and used/partially used in the Anderson science fiction television series Fireball XL5, Stingray and Thunderbirds as spacecraft or futuristic aircraft. ==See also==