Early Bronze Age First kingdom Evidence shows that Mari was founded as a new city in c. 2900 BC during the Mesopotamian
Early Dynastic period I, established to control the waterways of the
Euphrates trade routes connecting the
Levant with the
Sumerian south. The city was built about from the Euphrates river to protect it from floods, and was connected to the river by an artificial
canal long, the route of which has not been identified. The Mari site is difficult to excavate as it is buried deep under later layers of habitation. A circular flood embankment was unearthed, containing an area in length for gardens and craftsmen's quarters, and a defensive
circular internal rampart thick and high, strengthened by defensive towers. Other findings include one of the city gates, a street beginning at the center and ending at the gate, and residential houses. Mari had a central mound, but no temple or palace has been unearthed there. A large building was however excavated (with dimensions of 32 m x 25 m), seemingly with an administrative function. It had stone foundations and rooms up to long and wide. The city was abandoned c. 2550 BC at the end of the
Early Dynastic period II, for unknown reasons.
Second kingdom Near the beginning of
Early Dynastic period III, before 2500 BC, Mari was rebuilt and populated again. The new city kept many of the first city's exterior features, including the internal rampart and gate. Also kept was the outer circular embankment measuring in diameter, which was topped by a wall two meters thick capable of protecting
archers. , a superintendent in Mari. (25th century BC) The new Mari was carefully planned. Its internal urban structure was radically different from the preceding incarnation. First to be built were the streets that descended from the elevated center into the gates which ensured the drainage of rainwater. A structure known as the
Royal Palace of Mari was built in the heart of the city; the palace also served as a temple. Four successive architectural levels from the second kingdom's palace have been unearthed (the oldest is designated
P3, while the latest is
P0). The last two levels are dated to the
Akkadian period of Sumer. The first two levels were excavated; the findings include a temple dubbed the Enceinte Sacrée (
sacred enclosure) dedicated to an unknown deity, a columned throne room, and a hall with three double wood pillars leading to the temple. Six smaller temples were also discovered, including the temple called the Massif Rouge (also dedicated to an unknown deity), and temples dedicated to (INANA.ZA.ZA),
Ishtarat,
Ishtar,
Ninhursag, and
Shamash. All the temples except that of Ishtar were located in the center of the city; the area between the Enceinte Sacrée and the Massif Rouge is thought to be the administrative center of the
high priest. The second kingdom appears to have been a powerful and prosperous political center, its kings held the title of
Lugal, and many are attested in the city, the most important source being the letter of king
Enna-Dagan c. 2350 BC, which was sent to
Irkab-Damu of
Ebla,. In it, the Mariote king mentions his predecessors and their military achievements. However, the reading of this letter is still uncertain and many interpretations have been presented by scholars.
Mari–Ebla war , king of the Second Kingdom of Mari, circa 2300 BC The earliest attested king in the letter of Enna-Dagan is
Ansud, who is mentioned as attacking Ebla, the traditional rival of Mari with whom it had a long war, and conquering many of Ebla's cities, including the land of
Belan. The next king mentioned in the letter is
Saʿumu, who conquered the lands of
Ra'ak and
Nirum. King
Kun-Damu of Ebla defeated Mari in the middle of the 25th century BC. The war continued with
Išhtup-Išar of Mari's conquest of
Emar at a time of Eblaite weakness in the mid-24th century BC. King
Igrish-Halam of Ebla had to pay tribute to
Iblul-Il of Mari, who is mentioned in the letter, conquering many of Ebla's cities and campaigning in the
Burman region. Enna-Dagan also received tribute; his reign fell entirely within the reign of
Irkab-Damu of Ebla, who managed to defeat Mari and end the tribute. Mari defeated Ebla's ally
Nagar in year seven of the Eblaite
vizier Ibrium's term, causing the blockage of trade routes between Ebla and southern Mesopotamia through upper Mesopotamia. The war reached a climax when the Eblaite vizier
Ibbi-Sipish made an alliance with Nagar and
Kish to defeat Mari in a battle near
Terqa. Ebla itself suffered its first destruction a few years after Terqa in c. 2300 BC, during the reign of the Mariote king
Hidar. According to , Hidar was succeeded by
Ishqi-Mari whose royal seal was discovered. It depicts battle scenes, causing Archi to suggest that he was responsible for the destruction of Ebla while still a general.
Destruction of Mari by Sargon of Akkad Just a decade after Ebla's destruction (c. 2300 BC middle chronology), Mari itself was destroyed and burned by
Sargon of Akkad, as shown by one of his year names ("
Year in which Mari was destroyed").
Michael Astour proposed the date as c. 2265 BC (
short chronology).
Ishqi-Mari was probably the last king of Mari before the conquests by the
Akkadian Empire.
Sargon of Akkad collected tribute from Mari and
Elam:
Third kingdom Mari was deserted for two generations before being restored by the Akkadian king
Manishtushu. A governor was appointed to govern the city who held the title
Shakkanakku (military governor). Akkad kept direct control over the city, which is evident by
Naram-Sin of Akkad's appointment of two of his daughters to priestly offices in the city.
Shakkanakku dynasty ,
Shakkanakku (Military Governor) of Mari, circa 2050 BC In the Akkadian period, the first member of the
Shakkanakku dynasty on the lists is
Ididish, who was appointed in c. 2266 BC. According to the lists, Ididish ruled for 60 years and was succeeded by his son=, making the position hereditary. The layout of the third Mari was similar to that of its predecessor; phase
P0 of the old royal palace was replaced by a new palace for the Shakkanakku. Another smaller palace was built in the eastern part of the city housing royal burials that date to the former periods. The ramparts were rebuilt and strengthened while the embankment was turned into a defensive wall that reached in width. The former sacred enclosure was maintained, so was the temple of Ninhursag. However, the temples of Ninni-Zaza and Ishtarat disappeared, while a new temple called the "temple of lions" (dedicated to
Dagan), was built by the Shakkanakku
Ishtup-Ilum and attached to it, was a rectangular terrace that measured for sacrifices. Akkad disintegrated during
Shar-Kali-Sharri's reign, and Mari gained its independence, but the use of the Shakkanakku title continued during the following
Third Dynasty of Ur period. A princess of Mari married the son of king
Ur-Nammu of
Ur, and Mari was nominally under Ur hegemony. However, the
vassalage did not impede the independence of Mari, and some Shakkanakkus used the royal title
Lugal in their votive inscriptions, while using the title of Shakkanakku in their correspondence with the Ur's court. The dynasty ended for unknown reasons not long before the establishment of the next dynasty, which took place in the second half of the 19th century BC.
Middle Bronze Age Lim dynasty The second millennium BC in the
Fertile Crescent was characterized by the expansion of the
Amorites, which culminated with them dominating and ruling most of the region, including Mari which in c. 1830 BC, became the seat of the Amorite Lim dynasty under king
Yaggid-Lim. However, the
epigraphical and archaeological evidences showed a high degree of continuity between the Shakkanakku and the Amorite eras. Yaggid-Lim was the ruler of
Suprum before establishing himself in Mari, he entered an alliance with
Ila-kabkabu of
Ekallatum, but the relations between the two monarchs changed to an open war. The conflict ended with Ila-kabkabu capturing Yaggid-Lim's heir
Yahdun-Lim and according to a tablet found in Mari, Yaggid-Lim who survived Ila-kabkabu was killed by his servants. However, in c. 1820 BC Yahdun-Lim was firmly in control as king of Mari. Yahdun-Lim started his reign by subduing seven of his rebelling tribal leaders, and rebuilding the walls of Mari and Terqa in addition to building a new fort which he named Dur-Yahdun-Lim. He then expanded west and claimed to have reached the
Mediterranean, however he later had to face a rebellion by the Yaminite nomads who were centered at
Tuttul, and the rebels were supported by
Yamhad's king
Sumu-Epuh, whose interests were threatened by the recently established alliance between Yahdun-Lim and
Eshnunna. Yahdun-Lim defeated the Yaminites but an open war with Yamhad was avoided, as the Mariote king became occupied by his rivalry with
Shamshi-Adad I of
Shubat-Enlil, the son of the late Ila-kabkabu. The war ended in a defeat for Mari, and Yahdun-Lim was assassinated in c. 1798 BC by his possible son
Sumu-Yamam, who himself got assassinated two years after ascending the throne while Shamshi-Adad advanced and annexed Mari.
Shamshi-Adad of Assyria and Yasmah-Adad Shamshi-Adad (r. 1809-1775 BC) appointed his son
Yasmah-Adad on the throne of Mari, the new king married Yahdun-Lim's daughter, while the rest of the Lim family took refuge in Yamhad, and the annexation was officially justified by what Shamshi-Adad considered sinful acts committed by the Lim family. To strengthen his position against his new enemy Yamhad, Shamshi-Adad married Yasmah-Adad to Betlum, the daughter of
Ishi-Addu of
Qatna. However, Yasmah-Adad neglected his bride causing a crisis with Qatna, and he proved to be an unable leader causing the rage of his father who died in c. 1776 BC, while the armies of
Yarim-Lim I of Yamhad were advancing in support of
Zimri-Lim, the heir of the Lim dynasty. (18th century BC)
Zimri-Lim of Mari As Zimri-Lim advanced, a leader of the ''Sim'alites'' (Zimri-Lim's tribe) overthrew Yasmah-Adad, opening the road for Zimri-Lim who arrived a few months after Yasmah-Adad's escape, and married princess
Shibtu, a daughter of Yarim-Lim I, a short time after his enthronement in c. 1776 BC. Zimri-Lim's ascension to the throne with the help of Yarim-Lim I affected Mari's status, Zimri-Lim referred to Yarim-Lim as his father, and the Yamhadite king was able to order Mari as the mediator between Yamhad's main deity
Hadad and Zimri-Lim, who declared himself a servant of Hadad. Zimri-Lim started his reign with a campaign against the
Yaminites, he also established alliances with
Eshnunna and
Hammurabi of
Babylon, and sent his armies to aid the Babylonians. The new king directed his expansion policy toward the north in the
Upper Khabur region, which was named , where he subjugated the local petty kingdoms in the region such as
Urkesh, and , forcing them into vassalage. The expansion was met by the resistance of
Qarni-Lim, the king of
Andarig, whom Zimri-Lim defeated, securing the Mariote control over the region in c. 1771 BC, and the kingdom prospered as a trading center and entered a period of relative peace. Zimri-Lim's greatest heritage was the renovation of the
Royal Palace, which was expanded greatly to contain 275 rooms, exquisite artifacts such as
The Goddess of the Vase statue, and a royal archive that contained thousands of tablets.
Babylonian period Mari's relations with Babylon worsened with a dispute over the city of
Hīt that consumed much time in negotiations, during which a war against
Elam involved both kingdoms in c. 1765 BC. Babylon invaded in c. 1761 BC under the rule of
Hammurabi and defeated Zimri-Lin, ending the Lim dynasty, while Terqa became the capital of a rump state called the
Kingdom of Ḫana. In the south, the region of
Suhum became a Babylonian province. Mari survived the destruction and rebelled against Babylon in c. 1759 BC, which prompted Hammurabi to raze the city. Marc Van De Mieroop suggests that Hammurab, in a gesture of mercy, may have allowed Mari to survive as a small village under Babylonian administration.
Late Bronze Age Mari became part of
Assyria and was listed among the territories conquered by the Assyrian king
Tukulti-Ninurta I (r. 1243–1207 BC). Mari frequently changed hands between Assyria and Babylon.
Iron Age In the middle of the eleventh century BC, Mari became part of Hana. The king of Hana
Tukulti-Mer assumed the title
king of Mari and rebelled against Assyria, prompting Assyrian king
Ashur-bel-kala (r. 1074-1056 BC) to attack. In the first half of the 8th century BC Mari came firmly under the authority of the
Neo-Assyrian Empire. It was assigned to the governorship of a certain
Nergal-Erish, under the authority of king
Adad-Nirari III (r. 810–783 BC). In c. 760 BC
Shamash-Risha-Usur, an autonomous administrator under the nominal authority of
Ashur-dan III, ruled parts of the upper middle Euphrates; he styled himself the governor of the lands of
Suhu and Mari, as did his son
Ninurta-Kudurri-Usur. In 760 BC Mari was part of
Laqe,, suggesting that the title "governor" was a historical designation. The city of Mari persisted as a small settlement until the
Hellenistic period (323 – 30 BCE) when it disappeared from records.
Modern history By 2015, the
Islamic State (ISIS) had devastated and systematically looted the site, particularly the
Royal Palace of Mari. It was one of the first archaeological sites to be occupied by this group. ==People, language and government==