with fellow resistance members before hanging,
Minsk, October 26, 1941. After the victories of the
Wehrmacht against the
Red Army in 1941, Belarus was one of the Soviet republics that came under control of
Nazi Germany (
Operation Barbarossa). The official government of the occupation forces was established on August 23, 1941, under the direction of
Wilhelm Kube, the German administrator of the
Generalbezirk Weißruthenien. The German pacification operations were able to curb partisan activity significantly throughout the summer and fall of 1941. The
Belarusian Auxiliary Police was established by the Nazis in July 1941 and deployed to murder operations particularly in February–March 1942. The resistance movement first consisted of cut-off Soviet soldiers, some civilians began joining them around the summer of 1942. From that time until the end of the year, the Central Committee of the Communist Party (Bolsheviks) of Byelorussia formed courses and offices helping those wishing to fight the Nazi Government. Already in July 1941, an underground group in the Vesnitsky village council of the Ushachsky district was created by the head of the Lesinsky outpost of the 13th Berezinsky border detachment (), Lieutenant Kudryavtsev. Underground workers established relations with the population, conducted oral campaigns among them, calling for a struggle against the invaders, and helped unite the locals. Soon it was decided to create a partisan detachment and begin an open armed struggle. The Nazis tracked down Kudryavtsev and one night surrounded the house where he was resting and killed him. The first partisan detachments were composed mostly of Red Army personnel, but also included local people. They were commanded by officers of the Red Army, the Soviet secret police
NKVD or local Soviet or Communist
apparatchiks. These detachments dated back to the early days of World War II: the
detachment ''Starasyel'ski'' of major Dorodnykh in
Zhabinka district (June 23, 1941), the detachment of
Vasily Korzh in
Pinsk on June 26, 1941 and others. The first awards to the partisans with order of
Hero of the Soviet Union occurred on August 6, 1941; they were given to detachment commanders Pavlovsky and Bumazhkov. Throughout 1941, the core of the partisan movement consisted of the straggling remains of the
Red Army units destroyed in
Operation Barbarossa, personnel of the
destruction battalions, and local Communist
Komsomol and Soviet apparatchiks. The most common unit of the period was the
detachment. The "seed" partisan detachments,
diversionist and organizational groups were actively formed and inserted into German-occupied territories beginning in the summer of 1941. Urban underground groups were formed as a force complementing the activities of partisan units, which operated in rural terrains.
Organization As a controlling body, a network of underground Communist structures was actively developed on German-occupied territories, and it received an influx of specially picked Communist activists. By the end of 1941, more than two thousand partisan detachments (with more than 90,000 personnel) operated in German-occupied territories. However, the activities of the partisan forces weren't centrally coordinated or logistically provided for until spring of 1942. In order to coordinate partisan operations, the
Central Headquarters of the Partisan Movement, headed by
Panteleimon Ponomarenko, the Russian-born former head of the
Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic, was organised on May 30, 1942. The Staff had its
liaisons in the Military Councils of the fronts and armies. The territorial Staffs were subsequently created, dealing with the partisan movement in the respective Soviet Republics and in the occupied provinces of the Soviet Russia. Later, the
NKVD,
SMERSH and
GRU began to train special groups of future partisans (effectively
special forces units) in the rear and dropping them in the occupied territories. The candidates for these groups were chosen among volunteers from regular Red Army, the NKVD's
Internal Troops, and Soviet sportsmen. When dropped behind German lines, the groups were to organize and guide the local self-established partisan units. Radio operators and intelligence gathering officers were the essential members of each group since amateur fighters could not be trusted with these tasks. Some commanders of these special units (like
Dmitry Medvedev) later became well-known partisan leaders.
Logistics difficulties The Soviet authorities considered Belarus to be of the utmost importance to the development of the Soviet partisan war from the very beginning. The main factors were its geography, with many dense forests and swamps, and its strategic position on the communications going from West to Moscow. In fact, Belorussian Communist bodies in the Eastern provinces of Belarus began to organize and facilitate organization of the partisan units on the day after the first directive issuing (directives No.1 of 1941-07-30 and No.2 of 1941-07-01). By the Soviet estimates, in August 1941 about 231
detachments were operating already. The "seed" units, formed and inserted into Belarus, totalled 437 by the end of the 1941, comprising more than 7.2 thousand personnel. However, as the frontline moved further away, the logistical conditions steadily worsened for the partisan units, as the resources ran out, and there was no wide-scale support from over the frontline until March 1942. One outstanding difficulty was the lack of radio communication, which wasn't addressed until April 1942. The support of the local people was also insufficient. So, for several months, partisan units in Belarus were virtually left to themselves. Especially difficult for the partisans was the winter of 1941–1942, with severe shortages in ammunition, medicine and supplies. The actions of partisans were generally uncoordinated. In the circumstances, the German pacification operations in Summer and Fall 1941 were able to curb the partisan activity significantly. Many units went underground, and generally, in the late Fall 1941—early 1942, the partisan units weren't undertaking the significant military operations, limiting themselves to sorting out the organizational problems, building up the logistics support and gaining influence with the local people. In Winter 1941–1942, 50 partisan detachments and about 50 underground organization and groups operated in Belarus. By the incomplete Russian data, in the end of the 1941, 99 partisan detachments and about 100 partisan groups operated in Soviet Belarus. In the period (1941-12-01), the German guard forces in the Army Group "Centre" rear comprised 4 security divisions, 2 SS brigades, 260 companies of different branches of service. In August 1941, about 231 partisan detachments were operating in the
Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic. The units totalled 437 by the end of the 1941, comprising more than 7,200 personnel. Overwhelmingly, Jews and even small-scale Soviet activists would feel more secure in the partisan ranks. The direct boost to the partisan numbers were the Red Army POWs of the local origin, who were let out "to the homes" in Fall 1941, but ordered by Germans to return to the concentration camps in March 1942. In the Spring 1942, the aggregation of the
smaller partisan units into
brigades began, prompted by the experience of the first year of war. The coordination, numerical buildup, structural rework and now established logistical feed all translated to the greatly increased partisan units military capability, which showed, e.g., in the increased number of diversions on the railroads, reaching hundreds of engines and thousands of cars destroyed by the end of the year. In 1942, the terror campaign against the territorial administration, which was manned by the local people ("collaborators and traitors") was additionally emphasized. This resulted, however, in the definite split of the local people's sympathies, resulting in the beginning of the organisation of the anti-partisan units with native personnel in 1942. By the November 1942, Soviet partisan units in Belarus numbered about 47,000 personnel. The turning point in the development of the Soviet partisan movement came with the opening of the
Vitsyebsk gate in February 1942. The partisan units were included in the overall Soviet strategical developments shortly after that, and the centralized organizational and logistical support had been organized, with Gate's existence being the very important facilitating factor.
See also:
Central Headquarters of Partisan Movement,
Special Belarusian courses. By the November 1942, Soviet partisan units in Belarus numbered about 47.3 thousand personnel. This discrepancy wouldn't be sufficiently explained by the German treatment of local people, nor by the quick German advance in 1941, nor by the social circumstances then existing in these regions. There is strong evidence, that this was decision of the central Soviet authorities, who abstained from the greater buildup of the Partisan forces in West Belarus, and let Polish underground military structures to grow unopposed in these lands in 1941–1942, in the context of relations with the
Polish government in exile of Sikorsky. Certain level of military cooperation, imposed by the respective commands, was noted between Soviet partisans and the
Home Army; the people of Polish nationality were, to a degree, exempted from the terror campaign in 1942. After the break of diplomatic relations between USSR and
Polish government in exile in April 1943, the situation changed radically. From this moment on, AK was treated as hostile military force. The build-up of the Soviet partisan force in the
Western Belarus was ordered and implemented during 1943, with 9 brigades, 10 detachments and 15 operational groups transferred from the Eastern to Western lands, effectively tripling the Partisan force there (to 36.8 thousand in December 1943). It is estimated that
c. 10–12 thousand personnel were transferred, and about same number came from the local volunteers. The build-up of the military force was complemented by the ensuing build-up of the underground Communist Party structures and propaganda activity. Soviet victory at the
Battle of Stalingrad, certain curbing of the terror campaign (actually since December 1942, formally in February 1943) and amnesty promised to repenting collaborators were a significant factors in the 1943 growth of the Soviet partisan forces. Desertions from the ranks of the German-controlled
Hilfspolizei and military formations strengthened, with sometimes whole units coming over to Soviet partisan side – Volga Tartars battalion (900 personnel, February 1943), Gil-Rodionov 1st Russian People's brigade of the SS (2500 personnel, August 1943). Summarily, about 7 thousand people of miscellaneous anti-Soviet formations joined the Soviet partisan force. About 1.9 thousand specialists and commanders were inserted in the Belarusian lands in 1943. However, the local people comprised the core of the personnel influx in the Soviet partisan force. In late May 1943,
Uderzeniowe Bataliony Kadrowe, with permission of the headquarters of the Home Army, concentrated its forces (200 men) around
Wyszkow. The Germans soon found out about it and surrounded the Poles. A skirmish ensued, in which 4 Poles were killed and 8 wounded. German losses were estimated at 15 killed and 22 wounded. Those who were not caught, divided themselves into two groups and headed north, to
Bezirk Bialystok. On June 11, 1943, the UBK forces under Major
Stanislaw Pieciul (
Radecki) of the 4th Battalion engaged the Germans near the village of Pawly (
Bielsk Podlaski County). 25 Poles and approximately 40 Germans died. In July 1943 the Uderzeniowe Bataliony Kadrowe units, active in Bezirk Bialystok, consisted of five Battalions. Altogether, there were 200 fighters, and during a number of skirmishes with the Germans (including the
1943 Polish underground raid on East Prussia), 138 of them were killed. These heavy losses were criticized by the headquarters of the Home Army, who claimed that the UBK was profusely using lives of young Polish soldiers. On August 17, 1943, upon the order of General
Tadeusz Bór-Komorowski, the UBK was included into the Home Army. Soon afterwards, all battalions were transferred to the area of
Novogrudok. By autumn 1943, the partisan force in BSSR totalled about 153,700, and by the end 1943 about 122,000, with about 30,800 put behind the frontline in the course of liberation of eastern parts of BSSR (in the end of 1943). After the liberation of BSSR, about 180,000 partisans joined the
Soviet Army in 1944. During the 1941—1944 period, the turnaround in the Soviet partisan force in Belarus was about 374,000, about 70,000 in urban underground, and about 400,000 in the reserve of the partisan force. Among Soviet partisans in Belarus were people of 45 different ethnic backgrounds and 4,000 foreigners (including 3,000 Poles, 400
Czechs and
Slovaks, 300
Yugoslavians, etc.). Around 65% of Belarusian partisans were local people. On September 22, 1943, Kube was assassinated in his
Minsk home by a bomb as part of
Operation Blow-Up; the bomb was placed by a Soviet partisan
Yelena Mazanik, a Belarusian woman who had managed to find employment in Kube's household as a maid and presumably became his mistress in order to assassinate him.
1943–1944 The partisan movement was so strong that by 1943–44 there were entire regions in occupied Belarus, where Soviet authority was re-established deep inside the German held territories. There were even partisan
kolkhozes that were raising crops and livestock to produce food for the partisans.
Soviets enter General Krzyżanowski wanted to group all of the partisan units into a re-created
Polish 19th Infantry Division. However, the advancing
Red Army entered the city on July 15, and the
NKVD started to intern all Polish soldiers. In August the commander of all Home Army units in the Wilno area, Gen.
Aleksander Krzyżanowski "Wilk" ordered all six brigades under his command to prepare for the
Operation Tempest – a plan for an all-national uprising against the German forces occupying Poland. In what became known as the
Operation Ostra Brama, the V Brigade was to attack the Wilno suburb of
Zwierzyniec in cooperation with the advancing units of the
3rd Belorussian Front. However, for fear of being arrested with his units by the
NKVD and killed on the spot,
Zygmunt Szendzielarz – Łupaszko – decided to disobey the orders and instead moved his unit to central Poland. The Operation Ostra Brama was a success and the city was liberated by Polish soldiers, but the Polish commander was then arrested by the Soviets and the majority of his soldiers were sent to
Gulags and sites of detention in the Soviet Union. It is uncertain why Szendzielarz was not court-martialled for desertion. It is highly probable that in fact his unit was moved out of the battlefield by Gen. "Wilk" himself, due to the fact that Łupaszka's unit has been long involved in fights with the Soviet partisans and he did not want to provoke the Red Army. Regardless, after crossing into
Podlaskie and
Białystok area in October, the brigade continued the struggle against withdrawing Germans in the ranks of the "Białystok Home Army Area". After the region was overrun by the Soviets, Łupaszka's unit remained in the forests and Łupaszka decided to wait for the outcome of Russo-Polish talks held by the
Polish Government in Exile. At the same time the unit was reorganized and captured enough equipment to fully arm 600 men with machine guns and machine pistols. After the governments of the United Kingdom and United States broke the pacts with Poland and accepted the
Polish Committee of National Liberation as the provisional government of Poland, Łupaszka restarted the hostilities – this time against a new oppressor, in the ranks of
Wolność i Niezawisłość organization. However, after several successful actions against the NKVD units in the area of
Białowieża Forest, it became apparent that such actions would result in a total destruction of his unit. During the battles for liberation of Belarus, partisans considered the fourth Byelorussian front. After the liberation of BSSR, about 180,000 partisans joined the
Soviet Army in 1944. During the 1941–1944 period, the turnaround in the Soviet partisan force in Belarus was about 374,000, about 70,000 in urban underground, and about 400,000 in the reserve of the partisan force. Among Soviet partisans in Belarus were people of 45 different ethnic backgrounds and 4,000 foreigners (including 3,000 Poles, 400
Czechs and
Slovaks, 300
Yugoslavians, etc.). Around 65% of Belarusian partisans were local people. As part of the Nazis' effort to combat the enormous Belarusian resistance during World War II, special units of local
collaborationists were trained by the
SS's
Otto Skorzeny to infiltrate the Soviet rear. In 1944 thirty Belarusians, known as "
Čorny Kot" ("Black Cat") and led by
Michał Vituška, were
airdropped by the
Luftwaffe behind the lines of the
Red Army, which had already liberated Belarus during
Operation Bagration. They experienced some initial success due to disorganization in the rear of the Red Army, and some other German-trained Belarusian nationalist units also slipped through the
Białowieża Forest in 1945. According to most accounts, Vituška was hanged by Soviet forces during the war, though others claim he escaped along with several other collaborationist leaders.
Partisan operations •
Vasiliy Korzh raid, Autumn 1941 – March 23, 1942. 1000 km raid of a partisan formation in the
Mińsk and
Pińsk Woblast of Belarus. •
Battle of Briańsk forests, May 1942. Partisan battle against the Nazi
punitive expedition that included 5 infantry divisions, military police, 120 tanks and aviation. •
The destruction of the German garrison in Lenin, September 12, 1942. • Raid of
Sydor Kowpak, October 26 – November 29, 1942. Raid in Briańsk forests and Eastern Ukraine. •
Battle of Briańsk forests, May–June 1943. Partisan battle in the Briańsk forests with German punitive expeditions. •
Operation Rails War, August 3 – September 15, 1943. A major operation of partisan formations against the railroad transportation and communications intended to disrupt the German reinforcements and supplies for the
Battle of Kursk and later the
Battle of Smolensk. It involved concentrated actions by more than 100,000 partisan fighters from Belarus, the
Leningrad Oblast, the
Kalinin Oblast, the
Smolensk Oblast, the
Oryol Oblast and Ukraine within an area 1000 km along the front and 750 km wide. Reportedly, more than 230,000 rails were destroyed, along with many bridges, trains and other railroad infrastructure. The operation seriously incapacitated German logistics and was instrumental in the Soviet victory in Kursk battle. •
Operation Concert, September 19 – November 1, 1943. "Concerto" was a major operation of partisan formations against the railroad communications intended to disrupt the German reinforcements and supplies for the
Battle of the Dnieper and on the direction of the Soviet offensive in the Smolensk and
Homel directions. Partisans from Belarus, Karelia, the
Kalinin Oblast, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia and the
Crimea participated in the operations. The area of the operation was 900 km along the front (excluding Karelia and Crimea) and 400 km wide. Despite bad weather that only permitted the airlift of less than a half of the planned supplies, the operation lead to a 35–40% decrease in the railroad capacity in the area of operations. This was critical for the success of Soviet military operations in the autumn of 1943. In Belarus alone the partisans claimed the destruction of more than 90,000 rails along with 1,061 trains, 72 railroad bridges and 58 Axis garrisons. According to the
Soviet historiography, Axis losses totaled more than 53,000 soldiers. •
Battle of Połock-Lepel, April 1944. Major battle between Belarusian partisans and German punitive expeditions. •
Battle of Borysów-Begoml, April 22 – May 15, 1944. Major battle between Belarusian partisans and German punitive expeditions. •
Operation Bagration, June 22 – August 19, 1944. Belarusian partisans took major part in the Operation Bagration. They were often considered the fifth front (along with the
1st Baltic Front,
1st Belorussian Front,
2nd Belorussian Front and
3rd Belorussian Front). Upwards of 300,000 partisans took part in the operation. == Pro-independence resistance ==