Belenus

The theonym Belenus (or Belinus), which is a latinised form of the Gaulish Belenos (or Belinos), appears in some 51 inscriptions. Although most of them are located in Aquileia (Friuli, Italy), the main centre of his cult, the name has also been found in places where Celtic speakers lived in ancient times, including in Noricum, Gaul, Aquitania, Britain, and possibly in Ireland. The deity may also have been known in Ireland and Britain by the variants Bel, Beli, and Bile. Etymology The etymology of Belenos remains unclear. Traditionally, the name has been interpreted as meaning 'bright one' or the 'shining one', by connecting the first element to a Proto-Indo-European root *bʰelH-, often glossed as 'white, shining' (cf. Lithuanian báltas 'white', Greek phalós 'white', Armenian bal 'pallor', Gothic bala 'grey'). This theory was long reinforced by the interpretatio romana of Belenos as the 'Gaulish Apollo', a divinity with solar attributes. In recent scholarship, however, this etymology has been increasingly questioned. Xavier Delamarre observes that the cognates derived from *bʰelH- tend to denoted '[pale] white' or 'grey' rather than 'shining', and therefore may not support a solar interpretation. An alternative hypothesis, advanced by Peter Schrijver and Helmut Birkhan, derives Belenos from the Indo-European root *bʰel-, designating the henbane, a psychoactive plant. In Gaulish, henbane was known as belenuntia, plausibly a derivative of Belenos, while in Latin it was called apollinaris. Schrijver links the name of another Celtic goddess, Belisama, to a stem *belis- attested in Gallo-Roman belisa ('henbane'), and compares it to the Gaulish divine name Belisa-maros, which Birkhan explains as 'great in henbane'. Given the widespread medicinal use of henbane in antiquity, this hypothesis has been taken as compatible with existing evidence of Belenos as a healing god. In this context, Birkhan has tentatively interpreted a shallow stone dish dedicated to Beleino from Saint-Chamas (southern France) as a vessel for hallucinogenic substances. A different line of interpretation has been proposed by Patrizia de Bernardo Stempel, who suggests that Belenos may instead derive from a root *gwelH-, meaning 'source, spring'. Marjeta Šašel Kos observes that Belenus is closely associated with water cults, as evidenced by dedications to Fons Beleni and by an altar where Belenus is worshipped alongside the Nymphs. Finally, Delamarre has suggested deriving the name from the Gaulish stem belo- ('strong, powerful') attached to the suffix -nos ('lord, master'), yielding an interpretation of Belenos as the 'Master of Power'. In this framework, the goddess Belisama would be formed from the same stem bel(o)- with the intensive suffix -isama, and could thus be interpreted as 'the Very Powerful'. Related terms In pre-Roman Britain, a tribal leader bore the name Cunobelinos, which possibly means 'hound of Belenos'. Alternatively, if the name is not theophoric (that is, not derived from the god's name), it has been interpreted as meaning 'strong as a dog'. ==Historical cult==

Origin According Helmut Birkhan, Belenus functioned as a typical oracle- and health-giving deity from the Carnian region, in the northeastern area of modern Friuli. Marjeta Šašel Kos argues that the worship of Belenus spread from Noricum to nearby centres such as Aquileia and Iulium Carnicum (modern Zuglio). Although Belenus was often associated with the Graeco-Roman god Apollo, his cult appears to have retained a degree of independence during the Roman period. The god's widespread attestation among ancient Celtic peoples may plausibly point to a Common Celtic origin of the cult. In any case, it likely predated the Roman period. Consort Images of Belenus sometimes depict him alongside a female figure, which some scholars speculate to be the Gaulish deity Belisama. In addition, the river name Bienne (recorded as Biena in 1337 AD) and the place name Bienne (Belnam in 1142 AD), attest to the existence of a feminine form *Belenā. In Noricum, Belenus may also have been associated with an otherwise unknown female deity named Belestis, possibly venerated as a goddess of nature and fertility. Two shrines dedicated to this goddess were found at Podljubelj in the Karawanks moutains. == Attestations ==

Italy Around 240 AD, Herodian mentions the worship of Belenus in Aquileia, where he was regarded as the city's patron god. During the siege of Aquileia in 238 by emperor Maximinus Thrax, Belenus was invoked as the city's divine protector. Soldiers claimed to have seen the god appear in the air, fighting on behalf of the city, an episode reminiscent of Apollo's defence of Delphi against the forces of Brennos. Dedications to a Fons B[eleni] ('Fountain of Belenos') also show connection with medicinal springs. A village that is now part of the municipality of Aquileia is still named Beligna. A further 6 votive inscriptions of Belenus were discovered at Altinum, Concordia and Iulium Carnicum. Epigraphic dedications to the god are also known in Rome, Venice and Rimini. A votive inscription from Caesarean times by the poet Lucius Erax Bardus was found near Bardonecchia, in the Graian Alps. Noricum Tertullian, writing in c. 200 AD, identifies Belenus as the national god of Noricum. Belenus was an important god at Iulium Carnicum (modern Zuglio), a town close to the border with Noricum inhabited by the Celtic Carni. A sanctuary dedicated to the deity is attested by the second half of the 1st century BC, when its renovation was commemorated by two chiefs of the village. An altar was also found in Celeia (modern Celje), one of the most important Norican towns. The cult may have been introduced here from Aquileia, as suggested by the name of its dedicator, Lucius Sentius Forensis, the Sentii being well attested to at Aquileia, but not in Noricum. Gaul and Aquitania ).The deity was known in southern France, as attested by inscriptions from Marseille, Saint-Chamas, Gréasque, Calissanne and Saint-Rémy. A gem dedicated to Belenus has been discovered at Nîmes, depicting an elderly figure adorned with star-like symbols. In Central France at Aquae Borvonis (Bourbon-Lancy), the Aedui worshipped Belenus in association with health giving waters. Belenus was also venerated at Clermont-Ferrand, and had a temple at the sacred healing springs of Sainte-Sabine, where Apollo Belenus was invoked by pilgrims in search of cures for illness. Stone images of swaddled infants were dedicated at the shrine, presumably in the hope of healing. Ausonius (late 4th century AD) alludes to sanctuaries dedicated to Belenus in Aquitania, and mentions a temple priest of the cult named Phoebicius. Given the lack of epigraphic confirmation, Bernhard Maier has suggested that the name Belenus here functions as a learned circumlocution for Apollo. == Related beliefs ==

Medieval Ireland The Irish Bel has been speculated by some scholars to be linked to the god Belenus. On occasion, cattle was driven between two fires in order to repeal diseases, which Schrijver has compared to the traditional German custom of burning henbane collected on Midsummer to protect the cattle against diseases and witchcraft. Modern Slovenia The Slovenian divinity Belin, recorded in the 19th century by the historian Simon Rutar, may reflect the survival of Belenus' cult in the region and its later integration into Slovenian folk beliefs, possibly blended with attributes of the Slavic god Belibog. In local tradition, Belin was regarded as a great healer, believed to cure blindness with his 'key'. Folklorist Monika Kropej has also suggested that Belenus may have entered Slovenian folklore in the form of the beliči, a type of fairy-like beings. An incised stone in southwestern Slovenia, locally known as berlina, may also be related. It is connected to ancient rituals and features two primitively carved figures with heads ornamented with rays. == Legacy ==

Science The minor planet 11284 Belenus is named after him, as is the star Bélénos. Popular culture The Gauls of the Asterix franchise often swear by Belenos and Toutatis. ==Notes==