Definition Byzantine studies is the discipline that addresses the history and culture of Byzantium (Byzantium ↔ Byzantine Empire, the Greek Middle Ages; Byzantium = Constantinople [as capital of the Byzantine Empire]). Thus the unity of the object of investigation ("Byzantium") stands in contrast to the diversity of approaches (= specializations) that may be applied to it. – There were already "Byzantine" studies in the high medieval Byzantine Empire. In the later Middle Ages, the interest in Byzantium (in particular the original Greek sources) was carried on by Italian humanism, and it expanded in the 17th century throughout Europe and Russia. The late 19th and early 20th centuries brought the formation of Byzantine studies as an independent discipline.
Byzantium Greek-Hellenistic culture, Roman state traditions, Oriental influence and
Christian faith, together with a relative unity of language and culture, constitute medieval Byzantium. The starting point of Byzantine history is usually taken to be the reign of
Constantine the Great (306–337) and the foundation of
Constantinople (330). The "East Roman" (or
Late Antique) era of Byzantium begins at the latest with the division of the
Roman Empire into a
Western Roman Empire and an Eastern Roman Empire (395). This "Early Byzantine" period lasts until approximately 641 AD. Emperor
Justinian I (527–65) reconquered Italy, north Africa, and southern Spain, but after the expansion of Islam (634/98) a reorganized Byzantium, now based on administration by
Themes, was limited to the Greek-speaking regions of the Balkan peninsula, Asia Minor, and southern Italy;
Latin was abandoned as the language of officialdom. This may be perceived as the "end of antiquity", and the beginning of the "Middle Byzantine" era. This was also the era of
Iconoclasm (717–843) and of the origin of the
Holy Roman Empire (800). Under the
Macedonian Dynasty (10th–11th centuries) Byzantium regained power against the Islamic and Bulgarian states, but the death of Emperor
Basil II marked a turning point, with Byzantine power in Asia Minor and southern Italy suffering from the
Battle of Manzikert (1071) and the rise of the
Normans, respectively. A certain stability was achieved under the
Comnenian Dynasty, at least until the
Battle of Myriokephalon (1176). Internal conflicts facilitated the sack of Constantinople by the Crusaders (the
Fourth Crusade of 1204) and the establishment of Latin states in the south Balkans. The late period of the Byzantine Empire as a small state begins with the
Palaiologos dynasty, which was particularly threatened by the advances of the
Ottoman Empire and the economic influence of
Venice and
Genoa. An empire weakened in part through civil war suffered a severe blow when Thessalonica was captured in 1430, and finally fell to the Ottomans (
Fall of Constantinople in 1453, and of
Mistras in 1461). The
Empire of Trebizond (1204–1461), founded in the wake of the Fourth Crusade, also forms a part of Byzantine history.
Languages It is possible to distinguish between three levels of speech: Atticism (the literary language),
Koine (the common language of the Hellenistic period), and
Demotic (the popular language, and the forerunner of
modern Greek). Thus a certain
diglossia between spoken Greek and written, classical Greek may be discerned. Major genres of Byzantine literature include
historiography (both in the classical mode and in the form of
chronicles),
hagiography (in the form of the biographical account or
bios and the
panegyric or
enkomion); hagiographic collections (the
menaia and
synaxaria),
epistolography,
rhetoric, and
poetry. From the Byzantine administration, broadly construed, we have works such as description of peoples and cities, accounts of court ceremonies, and lists of precedence. Technical literature is represented, for example, by texts on military strategy. Collections of civil and canon law are preserved, as well as documents and
acta (see "Diplomatics" below). Some texts in the demotic are also preserved.
Identity There are currently three main schools of thought on medieval eastern Roman identity in modern Byzantine scholarship: 1) a potentially preponderant view that considers "Romanity" the mode of self-identification of the subjects of a multi-ethnic empire, in which the elite did not self-identify as Greek and the average subject considered him/herself as "Roman", 2) a school of thought that developed largely under the influence of modern
Greek nationalism, treating Romanness as the medieval manifestation of a perennial
Greek national identity, 3) a line of thought recently proposed by
Anthony Kaldellis arguing that Eastern Roman identity was a pre-modern
national identity.
Auxiliary sciences Byzantine archaeology Byzantine archaeology has increasingly developed into a distinct academic discipline concerned with its
architecture and
material culture. Historically, the field has been shaped by a strong emphasis on ecclesiastical studies and
art history, although more recent scholarship has begun to place greater weight on secular themes and everyday objects. Early
classical excavations in territories of the former Byzantine world often showed little regard for these later periods and instead focused primarily on more prominent
Hellenistic remains. Consequently, a significant number of Byzantine and occasionally even Roman remains were lost due to overzealous excavation practices. By contrast, excavations in
Near Eastern archaeology have at times demonstrated a more careful and systematic approach to Byzantine strata, as exemplified by the secondary but nonetheless well-documented 10th–12th-century monastic complex at the prominent site of
Hattusa.
Modes of transmission Modes of transmission entails the study of texts that are preserved primarily on
papyrus,
parchment or
paper, in addition to inscriptions, coins, and medals. The papyrus rolls of antiquity (
papyrology) are quickly replaced by the parchment codices of the Middle Ages (
codicology), while paper arrives in the 9th century via the Arabs and Chinese.
Diplomatics Diplomatics entails the study of Byzantine documents. Documents may be classified according to their producers as secular (imperial and private documents) or sacred (patriarchal and episcopal documents), or according to their means of preservation (the originals, imitations, or simple copies). Imperial documents may be divided into those that promulgate law (types: ; ), present decisions regarding specific cases (Epistula type: ; Subscriptio type:
lysis [administration, taxes], ), documents of foreign policy (treaties, letters to foreign rulers) (types:
sakrai, grammata, basilikon, chrysobullos horismos, chrysobullon sigillon, prokuratorikon chrysobullon) and administrative documents (types: ,
horismoi,
sigillia,
codicilli). Sacred documents are the documents and official letters of the patriarchs, including the (creeds), (testaments), ' (excommunication), (abdication) as well as the ceremonial () and the (the resolution of a synod) and the (dogmatic edicts). The most splendid form of privileged communication, in the form of a letter, was so called because the Emperor's word (
logos) appeared three times in red ink.
Epigraphy Byzantine
epigraphy entails the study of various stone, metal, ivory, mosaic, enamel, and paint inscriptions.
Numismatics Byzantine
numismatics entails the study of
imperial coins and
mints. Building on the gold standard of Late Antiquity, the Byzantine monetary system was, until the middle of the 14th century, based on a gold standard, and included silver, bronze, and copper coins. With the economic and political decline of the late period, the gold standard was abandoned in the final century of Byzantine history, and replaced by a silver-based system.
Metrology Byzantine
metrology entails the study of
Byzantine weights and measures. A great number of measures of length were used, including modified forms of the
Greek and
Roman units of the
finger,
pace,
fathom,
schoenus (field measurement),
plethron,
mile,
allage, and an average
day's journey. Measure of volume included:
litra, tagarion, pinakion, modios, and those of surface area
modios, megalos modios and
zeugarion. Measures for water and wine were called and . Measures of weight were and
pesa.
Chronology Byzantine chronology entails the study of the computation of
time. According to the various
Byzantine calendar systems, Year 1 AD. = Year 754 ab urbe condita = the first year of the 195th Olympiad = Year 49 of the Antiochean era = Year 5493 of the Alexandrine era = Year 312 of the Seleucid era = Year 5509 from the formation of the world. The Byzantine year began with 1 September, believed to be the
Day of Creation, e.g., 1 January through 31 August belonged to the year 5508, 1 September through 31 December to the year 5509. Dating according to
indiction remained standard. ==Organizations==