Early history In
earliest times, the area of Caucasian Iberia was inhabited by several related tribes stemming from the
Kura-Araxes culture. According to
Cyril Toumanoff, the
Moschians were an early proto-Georgian tribe that played a leading role in the consolidation of Iberian tribes largely inhabiting eastern and southern Georgia. The Moschians may have moved slowly to the northeast, forming settlements as they traveled. One of these settlements was
Mtskheta, the future capital of the Kingdom of Iberia. The Mtskheta tribe was later ruled by a prince locally known as
mamasakhlisi ("father of the household" in Georgian). The written sources for the early periods of Iberia's history are mostly medieval Georgian chronicles, which modern scholarship interprets as semi-legendary narratives. One such chronicle,
Moktsevay Kartlisay ("
Conversion of Kartli"), relates that a ruler named
Azo and his people came from
Arian-Kartli—the initial homeland of the proto-Iberians, which had been under
Achaemenid rule until the fall of the
Persian Empire—and settled on the site where
Mtskheta was later founded. Another Georgian chronicle,
Kartlis Tskhovreba ("The Life of Kartli"), presents Azo as an officer of
Alexander's, who massacred a local ruling family and conquered the area, until being defeated at the end of the 4th century BC by Prince
Pharnavaz, then a local chief. The story of Alexander's invasion of Kartli, although legendary, nevertheless reflects the establishment of Georgian monarchy in the
Hellenistic period and the desire of later Georgian literati to associate this event with the renowned conqueror.
Pharnavaz I and his descendants mentioning
Pharasmanes II of Iberia.
PHARASMAN'[ES REX IBERORVM CVM FILIO]
E ET VXORE PHR[CVI IMP(ERATOR) ANTONINVS AVG(VSTVS) REGNVM]
REDDIDIT Translation: Pharasman[es, king of the Iberians with his son] and his wife Phr[to whom the emp[eror] Antoninus Aug[ustus] restored the kingdom].
Pharnavaz, victorious in a power struggle, became the first
king of Iberia (c. 302 – c. 237 BC). According to later Georgian chronicles, after repelling an invasion, he subjugated neighboring regions, including a significant part of the western Georgian state of Colchis (locally known as
Egrisi), and appears to have secured recognition of the newly founded state by the
Seleucids of
Syria. Pharnavaz is also credited with building a major citadel,
Armaztsikhe, erecting a temple to the god
Armazi, and creating a new administrative system by subdividing the country into counties known as
saeristavos. His successors controlled the mountain passes of the
Caucasus, with the
Daryal Pass (also known as the Iberian Gates) being the most important. The period following this prosperity was marked by incessant warfare, as Iberia was forced to defend its territories against numerous invasions. Some southern regions of Iberia, conquered from the
Kingdom of Armenia in the 2nd century BC, were reunited with Armenia, while Colchian lands seceded to form separate princedoms (
sceptuchoi). At the end of the 2nd century BC, the
Pharnavazid king
Pharnajom was dethroned by his subjects after converting to Zoroastrianism, and the crown was given to the Armenian prince
Artaxias, who ascended the Iberian throne in 93 BC, establishing the
Artaxiad dynasty of Iberia.
Roman period and Roman–Parthian rivalry This close association with the
Kingdom of Armenia and the
Kingdom of Pontus drew Iberia into
a Roman invasion in 65 BC, led by the Roman general
Pompey during his war against
Mithradates VI of Pontus and Armenia. Rome, however, did not establish permanent control over Iberia. Twenty-nine years later, in 36 BC, Roman forces again marched into Iberia, compelling King
Pharnavaz II to participate in their campaign against
Albania. While the western Georgian kingdom of Colchis was administered as a Roman province, Iberia accepted Roman imperial protection while retaining a significant degree of autonomy. A stone inscription discovered at
Mtskheta refers to the 1st-century ruler
Mithridates I (AD 58–106) as "the friend of the Caesars" and as king "of the Roman-loving Iberians." Emperor
Vespasian fortified the ancient site of Arzami near Mtskheta for the Iberian kings in AD 75. During the following two centuries, Roman influence in Iberia remained substantial. By the reign of King
Pharsman II (116–132), Iberia had regained much of its former strength. Relations between Pharsman II and the Roman emperor
Hadrian were reportedly strained, although Hadrian is said to have sought reconciliation. Under Hadrian’s successor,
Antoninus Pius, relations improved considerably: Pharsman is reported to have visited
Rome, where, according to
Dio Cassius, a statue was erected in his honor and he was granted the right to offer sacrifices. This period marked a significant shift in Iberia’s political status. Rome increasingly regarded Iberia as an ally rather than as a subordinate state, a situation that largely persisted even during periods of Roman conflict with the
Parthians. , likely depicting
Fortuna (2nd century AD,
Georgian National Museum) From the first centuries of the Christian era, the cults of
Mithras and
Zoroastrianism were widely practiced in Iberia. Archaeological excavations of rich burials at Bori, Armazi, and Zguderi have yielded silver drinking cups bearing images of horses standing before fire altars or raising a foreleg above them. The cult of Mithras, distinguished by its syncretic character and its compatibility with local religious traditions—particularly solar worship within
Georgian mythology—gradually merged with indigenous beliefs. Some scholars have suggested that Mithras may have served as a precursor to the cult of
Saint George in pre-Christian Georgia. Over time,
Iranian religious concepts and cultural practices increasingly influenced the Iberian court and elite. The Armazian script and language, derived from Aramaic, were adopted for official use, as evidenced by a number of inscriptions dating to the Classical and Hellenistic periods found in
Colchis. Court ceremonial was modeled on Iranian prototypes, elite dress reflected Iranian styles, and Iranian personal names became common among the Iberian aristocracy. The official cult of the god
Armazi was introduced by King
Pharnavaz in the 3rd century BC, a development later associated in medieval Georgian chronicles with
Zoroastrianism.
Between Rome/Byzantium and Persia foot of the royal
throne found at
Mount Bagineti, 2nd century AD. Kept at the
Georgian National Museum in
Tbilisi. A decisive turning point in the history of Iberia was the foundation of the
Sasanian (or Sassanid) Empire in 224 by
Ardashir I. By replacing the weak Parthian realm with a strong, centralized state, this development altered Iberia’s political orientation away from Rome. During the reign of
Shapur I (241–272), Iberia became a tributary of the Sasanian Empire. Relations between the two states initially appear to have been amicable, as Iberia cooperated with Persian military campaigns against Rome, and the Iberian king
Amazasp III (260–265) was listed among the high dignitaries of the Sasanian realm rather than as a subdued vassal. The expansionist tendencies of the Sasanians soon became evident through their promotion of
Zoroastrianism, which was likely established in Iberia between the 260s and 290s. However, under the terms of the
Peace of Nisibis in 298, the Roman Empire regained control over Caucasian Iberia as a vassal state. Rome acknowledged Iberian authority over much of the Caucasus and recognized
Mirian III, the first ruler of the Chosroid dynasty, as king of Iberia.
Adoption of Christianity and Sasanian Persian period Roman influence proved decisive in religious matters, as King
Mirian III and leading nobles converted to
Christianity around 319, declaring it the
state religion of Iberia. This event is associated with the mission of a
Cappadocian woman,
Saint Nino, who had been preaching Christianity in the Georgian kingdom since 303. Treasure, 4th century BC Christianity became a strong cultural and political link between
Georgia and Rome (later
Byzantium), influencing state culture and society. Iranian elements in Georgian art gradually declined with the adoption of Christianity in the fourth century. , identified as a
Zoroastrian fire temple,
sun temple, or
Manichean shrine. Following the death of
Julian the Apostate in 363 during his failed campaign in Persia, Rome ceded control of Iberia to Persia. King
Varaz-Bakur I (Asphagur) (363–365) became a Persian vassal, as confirmed by the Peace of
Acilisene in 387. Later, Pharsman IV (406–409) preserved Iberian autonomy and ceased tribute payments to Persia. The early reign of
Vakhtang I, known as
Gorgasali (447–502), marked a revival of the kingdom. Formally a Persian vassal, he secured northern borders, subjugated Caucasian mountaineers, and brought adjacent western and southern Georgian territories under his control. He established an
autocephalic patriarchate at
Mtskheta and made
Tbilisi his capital. In 482, he led a general uprising against Persia, initiating a twenty-year struggle for independence. Lacking Byzantine support, he was eventually defeated and died in battle in 502.
Fall of the kingdom , once an Iberian stronghold under
Vakhtang I. The continuing rivalry between
Byzantium and
Sasanian Persia for supremacy in the
Caucasus had severe consequences for Iberia. The unsuccessful uprising of 523, led by the Georgians under , weakened the kingdom. Thereafter, the Iberian king retained only nominal authority, while real power was exercised by the Persians. In 580,
Hormizd IV (578–590) abolished the monarchy following the death of
King Bacurius III, converting Iberia into a Persian province administered by a
marzpan (governor). Georgian nobles appealed to the Byzantine emperor
Maurice to restore the kingdom in 582, but in 591 Byzantium and Persia agreed to divide Iberia:
Tbilisi remained under Persian control, while
Mtskheta came under Byzantine administration. At the beginning of the 7th century, the truce between Byzantium and Persia collapsed. The Iberian prince
Stephen I (c. 590–627) allied with Persia in 607 to reunite Iberian territories, a goal he largely achieved. However, Emperor
Heraclius’s campaigns in 627–628 defeated both the Georgians and Persians, establishing Byzantine predominance in western and eastern
Georgia until the
Arab invasion.
Arab period and restoration of the kingship The
Arabs reached Iberia around 645 and compelled its
eristavi (prince),
Stephen II (r. 637–650), to abandon allegiance to
Byzantium and recognize the
Caliph as suzerain. Iberia became a tributary state, and an Arab
emir was installed in
Tbilisi circa 653. By the early 9th century,
Ashot I (r. 813–830) of the new
Bagrationi dynasty, based in southwestern Georgia, took advantage of the weakening of Arab control to establish himself as hereditary prince of Iberia, holding the Byzantine title
kouropalates. His successor,
Adarnase IV of Iberia, formally a vassal of Byzantium, was crowned "king of Iberia" in 888. His descendant,
Bagrat III (r. 975–1014), united the various principalities to form a consolidated
Georgian monarchy. ==Eastern and Western Iberians==