History of the Vittoriano

After the death of Victor Emmanuel II of Savoy on January 9, 1878, there were many initiatives intended to erect a permanent monument celebrating the first king of united Italy, that is, to the one who brought to fruition the process of Italian unification and liberation from foreign domination, so much so that he is referred to by historiography as the “Father of the Fatherland,” partly due to the political work of the Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Sardinia Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour and the military contribution of Giuseppe Garibaldi. The goal was thus to commemorate the entire Risorgimento period through one of its protagonists. In this act it was decided to allocate one hundred thousand liras and to set up a national fund-raising campaign whose objective would be to raise funds destined to erect a permanent monument dedicated to Victor Emmanuel II of Savoy to be built in Rome. with 211 votes in favor and 10 votes against. The bill did not specify the type of monument, nor did it specify the place in Rome where it would be erected, since it delegated the decision on these matters to a special commission that would be chaired by the president of the Council of Ministers and made up of nine senators, nine deputies, the mayor of Rome as well as the minister of public education and the minister of public works. The work of this commission led the president of the Council of Ministers to present the executive project of the monument to the Chamber of Deputies on June 14, 1879. All of the commission's important decisions were contested: those concerning the method decided for the call for entries (the international significance of the competition, which would have given the possibility of victory to foreign artists: this was, according to some, incompatible with the national character of the monument being erected), the type of monument chosen and the place where it would be erected. The fall of Agostino Depretis' government on July 14, 1879, caused the temporary postponement of the project; it was resumed in March 1880 after the general elections in May of that year. A new commission was set up, which decided to remove all constraints from the notice, which would still be international: the latter, in fact, no longer specified either the place where the monument would be erected (the possible choices were: Piazza di Termini (the modern “Piazza dei Cinquecento”), Piazza Vittorio Emanuele II, the Pincian Hill, the Prati district or the Capitoline Hill) nor the type of construction to be built (the possibilities were: statues, triumphal arches, pantheons, simple arches and/or monumental squares). This proposal was later approved by parliament. == The first competition ==

On September 13, 1880, the “Royal Commission for the Monument to Victor Emmanuel II” was established, which announced on September 23 of the same month an international competition in which three hundred and eleven competitors then participated. All the designs were exhibited to the public on December 15, 1881 at the Santa Susanna Agricultural Museum. Nénot's idea was to build a triumphal arch with three fornixes along Via Nazionale at the entrance to Piazza di Termini (Nénot chose this location because it was one of the busiest “entrances” to Rome, given the proximity of the Termini train station): a flight of steps surrounded by eight statues was to be erected there, in the center of which was a statue of Victor Emmanuel II of Savoy, portrayed standing and with his arm raised. Four fountains were also to be placed in the square. Added to this was the tension due to the so-called “slap of Tunis,” or the occupation of Tunisia by France, Nénot's nation of origin. Another reason for the failure to implement Nénot's project was the excessive freedom given to the artists in choosing the place of construction and the type of monument to be built, guidelines that had led to a flourishing of architectural proposals that were too different from each other (in total there were 293 projects filed). Ferrari-Piacentini's project envisaged a monument to be built alongside the aforementioned basilica in the form of an imposing marble construction marked by ascending tiers of steps, with a majestic colonnade on its summit and with a statue of Victor Emmanuel II of Savoy seated on a throne, which would be the centerpiece of the architectural complex. This design was the one later realized with the construction of the Vittoriano, which has precisely such features, with the appropriate variations (the pose of the king would later be on horseback and not on a throne). == The second competition ==

The preparatory phase Since the excessive freedom granted by the notice had led to the failure of the first competition, it was decided to hold a second one that would establish, this time, both the place of construction and the precise characteristics of the building. The debate prior to the holding of the second competition was dominated by the choice of the place where the monument would be erected: the Capitoline Hill, the preferred solution from the beginning of the discussion; the Piazza di Termini, which was on the border between the historic district of Rome and more recent buildings (“between the old and the new Rome,” as it is stated on the minutes of the commission); or the enlargement and modification of the Pantheon and the adjacent Piazza della Rotonda with the construction of new monumental buildings. The Vittoriano, a monumental symbol of the history of the Risorgimento, with this choice, would in fact have been grafted onto the history of ancient Rome, given the presence of the aforementioned Palazzo Senatorio and Tabularium, which make this hill of Rome one of the most representative of Roman antiquity, since both are in fact the symbol of the power of Rome (from them derives the other appellation by which the Capitolium is known: “Capitoline Hill,” i.e., relating to the political and administrative center represented by the “capital”) since they housed the public state archives, i.e., the most important public acts of ancient Rome, from decrees of the Roman Senate to peace treaties. Moreover, the bulk of the Vittoriano, given that it would be built in the historic center of Rome, would rival, even from a “secular-spiritual” point of view, the monuments of Papal Rome: in fact, the aversion against Papal Rome, and all its buildings, which was represented by Pope Pius IX, a pontiff who came into decisive opposition with the newly formed Kingdom of Italy leading to the resurgence of the Roman Question, was still very much alive. In fact, the total cost of the work, for the monument built on the Capitoline Hill, excluding expropriations, reached nine million liras (one million coming from the public fundraising campaign to which as much as eight million of public money had to be added). The work of the royal commission then resumed on September 16, 1882. and the general type of building, which was to rival in grandeur the most important constructions built by the ancient Romans and popes: a monument whose style would be inspired by the design of Ettore Ferrari and Pio Piacentini, that is, an imposing marble construction distinguished by ascending tiers of steps, with a wide and majestic colonnade at its top, and with an equestrian statue of Victor Emmanuel II of Savoy in the center. The holding of the competition The details of the design, including changing the type of statue of Victor Emmanuel II from a figure seated on a throne to an equestrian statue, were finally approved on November 19, 1882. The notice also specified the precise characteristics of the colonnade, behind which the civic tower of the Palazzo Senatorio, which is located just behind the monument, adjacent to the basilica of Santa Maria in Aracoeli, was to be imperatively seen. This was intended to emphasize and highlight Rome's role as the capital of Italy. Given the government's tough stance, which ended all discussion, the program for the second competition was published, on December 18, 1882, in No. 295 of the Official Gazette of the Kingdom of Italy: which ended on June 24, 1884. Among the three projects, the commission then voted for that of Giuseppe Sacconi, a young architect from the Marche region, who thus won the competition and was commissioned to draw up the design of the upcoming Vittoriano. == Design choices ==

, one of the models for Ettore Ferrari and Pio Piacentini's design of the Vittoriano Ettore Ferrari and Pio Piacentini's design was inspired by the great Hellenistic shrines, such as the Pergamon Altar in Pergamon and the Temple of Fortuna Primigenia in Palestrina. The Vittoriano was conceived as a large, modern forum On its top there would have been a majestic portico characterized by a long colonnade and two imposing propylaea, one dedicated to the “unity of the fatherland” and the other to the “freedom of the citizens,” concepts metaphorically linked to the figure of Victor Emmanuel II of Savoy: Having then been architecturally conceived as a large public square, the Vittoriano, in addition to representing a memorial dedicated to the person of King Victor Emmanuel II of Savoy, was invested with another role: a modern forum dedicated to the new free and united Italy. The entire monument, which would later appear as a kind of marble covering of the northern slope of the Capitol Hill, 's reconstructive hypothesis of the sanctuary of Fortuna Primigenia in Palestrina, one of the models for the Vittoriano project by Ettore Ferrari and Pio Piacentini The first choice fell on Carrara marble, but a price demand deemed too high by the royal commission prompted it, on July 2, 1889, to decree the use of Botticino marble. Botticino marble was chosen mainly because of its chromatic peculiarities: compared to Carrara marble, which is characterized by absolute white, it has a white hue that possesses a slight tendency to straw yellow, a characteristic that gives this material a greater “warmth” than Carrara marble. The decision to replace the travertine chosen by Sacconi with Botticino marble thus generated much controversy, which originated from the distance from Rome to the Botticino marble quarries, which was deemed excessive: a few kilometers southeast of Rome, near Tivoli, there were in fact ample deposits of travertine, still widely exploited today in a multiplicity of quarries by numerous local companies. The use of travertine for buildings in Rome was typical as early as the Augustan age, with the exception of temples, for which marble was used. The Vittoriano was therefore originally conceived by Sacconi with bichromatic shades, that is, with two dominant gradations, colors that originated from the use of two different cladding materials: travertine and Botticino marble. with the official opening of the site on 1 January 1885. The solemn ceremony of laying the foundation stone of the Vittoriano took place on 22 March 1885 in the presence of King Umberto I of Savoy, Queen Margherita of Savoy and the entire royal family, as well as a large foreign delegation. The official speech was delivered by the Prime Minister Agostino Depretis, while the documents and parchment commemorating the inauguration were walled up in the third foundation pillar of the upper portico. The caves and tunnels were partly expected, as it was known that the area had been excavated by the Romans in ancient times, but their presence on such a massive scale had not been anticipated. Giuseppe Sacconi was obliged to modify the project and provide for the reinforcement of the tunnels with the construction of structures resting on their vaults. Some of the caves were later used during the Second World War (1940-1945) as air-raid shelters. During the excavations, a section of the Servian Wall, the first city wall dating back to the 6th century BC, i.e. to the time of the kings of Rome, was also discovered, as well as the remains of a mammoth, an extinct mammal that lived in prehistory: both findings were incorporated into the walls of the Vittoriano building (without destroying them, but leaving the possibility to inspect them), except for some parts of the fossil animal, which were transferred to the University of Rome. The consequence of the discovery of the Servian Wall was a substantial modification of the project: two more foundation piers were added to the upper portico, in order to leave the archaeological remains found during the earthworks free and open to inspection. The columns were also made more slender. Due to the elongation of the upper portico, the overall view of the Vittoriano went beyond the planned limits, becoming the prominent element, from an architectural point of view, of Piazza Venezia. Originally, the Vittoriano had in fact been conceived as one of the many buildings in the square, without such a marked architectural prevalence: with its enlargement, it became necessary to intervene on the buildings in the square that were visually aligned with the new extreme limits of the Vittoriano, i.e. Palazzo Venezia and Palazzo Torlonia, which were both demolished, with the former being rebuilt considering the architectural novelty represented by the enlargement of the Vittoriano. Another change during construction was the one conceived in February 1888, when Giuseppe Sacconi decided to provide interior spaces inside the Vittoriano. The idea came to him after the discovery of tunnels and caverns underground: some of them were then exploited to create part of the Vittoriano's interiors, i.e. rooms, crypts, galleries and corridors. These interiors would later house the Central Museum of the Risorgimento, the Shrine of the Flags and the Crypt of the Unknown Soldier. This was also a necessity since it was no longer possible to place the Vittoriano's internal weight on the Capitoline Hill, so it was decided to exploit the galleries to create internal architectural spaces that would also have a structural function. The project was therefore also modified from an aesthetic point of view, as the Vittoriano was also to have windows and doors for the interior spaces, which were then placed on the building's perimeter walls. Due to these changes, the cost of the work went from the initially estimated nine million liras to the final twenty-six and a half million. To build its foundations, 70,000 cubic metres of land had to be excavated. == The demolition of surrounding buildings ==

Historical context In order to erect the Vittoriano it was necessary, between the last months of 1884 and 1899, to proceed with numerous expropriations and extensive demolitions of the buildings on the northern side of the Capitoline Hill, the one next to the basilica of Santa Maria in Aracoeli, where the monument was to be built. Piazza Venezia, like many surrounding streets and squares, was embellished with flower beds and trees. The changes for Rome were therefore considerable, also because they also involved the road system, with the construction of new roads that were made by demolishing many buildings, such as Via Nazionale and Corso Vittorio Emanuele II. Initially the idea was to build a new district to the north-east of the historical centre where the administrative and political centre of the capital could be realised, The idea of a new district was therefore initially discarded and it was decided to concentrate these new administrative buildings in the historical centre of Rome: this resulted in a massive acquisition, many times followed by demolitions, of old palaces, monasteries, etc. by overcoming the centuries-old urban planning of Papal Rome. In this context, the Vittoriano would have been the equivalent of Berlin's Brandenburg Gate, London's Admiralty Arch and the Opéra Garnier in Paris: these buildings all share a monumental and classical appearance that metaphorically communicates the pride and power of the nation of which they are the symbol. In 1870, the year Lazio was annexed to the Kingdom of Italy, Rome was the fifth largest Italian city after Naples, Milan, Genoa and Palermo. with the transfer of the Royal Court and the political and administrative class from Turin to Rome, This conspicuous immigration was linked to the relocation of tens of thousands of bureaucrats, which was also followed by bankers and speculators. One of the reasons that prompted the Italian ruling class to decide on organizing a vast demolition campaign was the aforementioned aversion against Papal Rome, and all its buildings. Associated with these works, which involved urban planning, were works for the implementation and improvement of services, such as the construction of new bridges over the Tiber River, the installation of new drinking water distribution systems and the construction of sewers. The demolitions related to the construction of the Vittoriano , seen in the center of the image (it is the clearing to the right of Palazzo Venezia, recognizable by the presence of a tower. To the right of the clearing can be seen Palazzo Torlonia, which was later demolished), seen from the side of the Capitoline Hill where the Vittoriano would be built, in an 1870 photograph The first demolitions had already been carried out for the foundation stone-laying ceremony: in particular, several private homes and the Franciscan garden, which was part of the Ara Coeli convent, were demolished. Indeed, the symbolic meaning of the monument was modern: the celebration of the new free and united Italy. This series of demolitions also involved the enlargement of the adjacent Piazza d'Aracoeli. As already mentioned, Piazza Venezia was completely redesigned. From the year 1900 to 1906 work was carried out, based on the ideas of Giuseppe Sacconi, to enlarge it and make it more regular in shape and symmetrical with respect to the Vittoriano: previously its boundaries, which were much more limited than those of the present square, followed the ancient buildings that stood there, from which resulted an irregular shape of the square. The demolition works, and consequently those for the construction of the Vittoriano, proceeded expeditiously due to special urban planning tools made available by the government. All demolitions, thus including those necessary to build the Vittoriano, went through the scrutiny of the royal commission that decided, among the hundreds of buildings, or archaeological remains, which ones to preserve and which ones could be destroyed. Several personalities spoke out against the demolitions, including Rome Mayor Leopoldo Torlonia and archaeologist Rodolfo Lanciani. that prompted the municipal administration of Rome, with the mayor at the head, to present a formal protest against the expropriations and the resulting demolitions. in 1880, demolished along with the surrounding neighborhood for the construction of the monument All the archaeological finds that still lay underground in that area of the Capitolium would also have been lost, as they were destroyed. To these criticisms were added those of Ferdinand Gregorovius, a German historian famous for his studies on medieval Rome, Conversely, there were also favorable opinions, such as that of art historian Giovanni Battista Cavalcaselle and that of architect Camillo Boito, who were instead in favor of the demolitions, albeit with the appropriate distinctions. which was the last one before final approval for the work, the vast neighborhood on the northern slope of the Capitoline Hill, where the Vittoriano was to be built, was thus demolished, consisting of medieval and Renaissance buildings, and many historical constructions such as the papal villa commonly known as the Tower of Paul III were demolished, the overpass connecting with Palazzo Venezia (the so-called “arch of St. Mark”), the three cloisters of the Franciscan convent of the Ara Coeli (the basilica of the same name was spared and still stands adjacent to the Vittoriano), the church of Santa Rita da Cascia in Campitelli (which was rebuilt elsewhere), the barracks of Santa Caterina da Siena, Palazzo Tiberi and all the minor buildings present on the slopes of the hill. In this way, some of Rome's historic streets and related neighborhoods disappeared, such as Via Della Pedacchia, Via Di Testa Spaccata, Via Della Ripresa Dei Barberi, and Via Macel De' Corvi, while other streets, which were not erased from the maps, were turned upside down, with the demolition of all the blocks of buildings that stood on their sides, such as Via Giulio Romano, Via San Marco, and Via Marforio. Part of the demolitions were carried out to allow a view of the monument from Via del Corso and Via Nazionale. == The equestrian statue of Victor Emmanuel II ==

The construction of the equestrian statue of Victor Emmanuel II, the first work to be created and the architectural centerpiece of the entire monument, which would better match the style of the Vittoriano. In the end Chiaradia won, with the statue later completed by Emilio Gallori, since its creator had died in 1901. Gallori made changes to Chiaradia's design following the suggestions of the royal commission: the goal was to make the difference between the style of the statue and that of the Vittoriano less jarring. The “noble” cities depicted are the capitals of the ancient pre-unification Italian monarchies and maritime republics, the birth of which can be attributed to a period prior to the Savoy monarchy: for this reason they were considered the “noble mothers” of Risorgimento Italy. On the occasion of King Victor Emmanuel III of Savoy's visit, the authorities decided to offer refreshments to a small group of guests from among those who had participated in the project. The event was set up inside the belly of the bronze horse, which was able to accommodate more than twenty people, as evidenced by period photographs, copies of which are displayed on the Vittoriano's rear terrace. All the artwork created for the Vittoriano, including the equestrian statue of Victor Emmanuel II, involved the major artists then active in Italy. == The continuation of the work ==

The decision to include within the Vittoriano an “altar” dedicated to the homeland was made by Giuseppe Sacconi only after the design phase, during the construction work on the monument. The place and the dominant subject were chosen immediately: a large statue of the goddess Roma that would be placed on the first terrace after the entrance to the monument, just below the equestrian statue of Victor Emmanuel II. Thus the Altar of the Fatherland, at least initially, before the burial of the body of the Unknown Soldier, was thought of as a sacellum of the goddess Roma. This was an opportunity for Sacconi to assemble all the minor changes to the project that he had submitted to the royal commission over time and produce an updated drawing of the Vittoriano to show to the Sovereign: this drawing represented the second general design of the monument after the original one. A major change to the design was made around the year 1900, after an interruption of work that lasted from 1896 to 1898 due to lack of funds: the original two-staircase entrance was changed to a single entrance flanked by two fountains, the “fountains of the seas”. who prepared the fourth general design of the Vittoriano: the third design was instead carried out by Pompeo Passerini, Adolfo Cozza and Giulio Crimini in 1906, that is, by the three close collaborators of Sacconi who temporarily took over the reins of the construction site after his death, and a plaster model of it, later lost in a fire, was shown to the public at the International Exhibition in Milan. With this fourth and final project, the Vittoriano took its final form: a monument characterized by allegorical works of art with the exception of the equestrian statue of Victor Emmanuel II, which is a depiction of a real person who existed, over which the Altar of the Fatherland stands out symbolically. it became a secular temple designed, at least initially, as an altar of the goddess Roma. In the same decree the location of this committee was decided: the Vittoriano. In the years leading up to 1911, the year in which the Vittoriano was inaugurated, final changes were made to the design, an update that resulted in the final version of the monument. This last revision of the design, which included lowering the balustrades of the terraces and modifying some of the staircases (which were made more rectilinear), was aimed at further slimming the structure upward with the goal of giving the impression that the Vittoriano was the natural architectural continuation of Piazza Venezia. == The debate over the subjects to be represented ==

The first proposal regarding the subjects to be depicted in the eight statues on the base of the third terrace for those coming from the entrance of the Vittoriano, that is, the one at the base of the upper portico, envisioned a list of illustrious men of the Risorgimento that included Giuseppe Garibaldi, Giuseppe Mazzini, Terenzio Mamiani, Massimo d'Azeglio, Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour, Manfredo Fanti, Luigi Carlo Farini, and Vincenzo Gioberti. In a second list Manfredo Fanti was replaced by Guglielmo Pepe, Massimo d'Azeglio by Daniele Manin and Terenzio Mamiani by Bettino Ricasoli. Another idea was to place these statues on either side of the Vittoriano's entrance staircase. Compared to the initial idea, the choice to instead portray allegorical figures, i.e., abstract and generic concepts through concrete and precise images (e.g., personifications of virtues, feelings, etc.), made the meanings conveyed by the Vittoriano's artistic presence more universal, since the concepts were detached from real historical people who had a precise and circumstantial life history. This competition, in addition to choosing the artist to be entrusted with the work, left the sculptors free to propose the precise subject of the side depictions, without prejudice to the presence at the center of the statue of the goddess Roma. The winner was Angelo Zanelli, who proposed Virgil's Bucolics and Georgics, which were unveiled, together with the statue of the goddess Roma, in 1925 on the occasion of the Christmas of Rome (April 21). == The inauguration ==

The monumental complex was inaugurated in front of a huge crowd on June 4, 1911, on the occasion of the events related to the national exhibition during the celebrations of the 50th anniversary of the Unification of Italy, The ceremony was also attended by Queen Elena, the Queen Mother, namely Margherita of Savoy, and the remainder of the royal family, including Maria Pia of Savoy, daughter of Victor Emmanuel II and Queen Mother of Portugal, who had recently been deposed by the revolution that had established the republic the previous year. Also present were Prime Minister Giovanni Giolitti, the six thousand mayors of Italy, veterans of the wars of the Risorgimento, and three thousand Roman school students. The moment of the inauguration was represented by the solemn uncovering of the cloth covering the equestrian statue of Victor Emmanuel II, a gesture that was performed after a nod from Giolitti, who took the order from King Victor Emmanuel III of Savoy. The atmosphere during the opening ceremony of the Vittoriano was marked by an intense unified and national spirit. Nevertheless, despite this conciliatory atmosphere there were dissident voices. The solemn event was opposed by the socialists (at that time led by the maximalist wing, which was the most intransigent and radical one) because of their internationalist ideology, which is the antithesis of the patriotism that was later expressed during the inauguration of the Vittoriano, and the republicans, who were critical of this ceremony given the unquestionable monarchical connotations that the monument possessed. The total cost of the construction of the Vittoriano, which was built in the centre of ancient Rome and reached modern Rome through streets that radiate from Piazza Venezia, was about 30 million liras. 70,000 cubic meters of land had to be excavated to build its foundations. == The Tomb of the Unknown Soldier ==

The selection of the body and the train journey After World War I, the Altar of the Fatherland was chosen to house the tomb of the Unknown Soldier, that is, an Italian soldier who died during World War I, whose identity remains unknown due to the severe wounds that made the body unrecognizable: for this very reason it represents all Italian soldiers who died during the wars. The reason for its strong symbolism lies in the metaphorical transition from the figure of the soldier to that of the people and finally to that of the nation: this transition between increasingly broad and generic concepts is due to the indistinct features of the soldier's non-identification. The choice of the body to be buried at the Altar of the Fatherland in a tomb that would become the Monument to the Unknown Soldier was made from eleven unidentified bodies of Italian soldiers, which were selected by a special commission established by the Ministry of War. Maria Bergamas was led in front of the eleven coffins lined up, which she inspected as she collapsed to the ground in front of the tenth coffin on which, for this reason, the choice fell. The coffin thus selected was then placed on the gun carriage and laid on a railway hearse followed by sixteen other carriages, which was designed for the occasion by Guido Cirilli: the body was escorted to the railway convoy by a number of veterans decorated with the gold medal of military valor. at a very slow speed so that at each station the population had an opportunity to honor the fallen. The flags of all the regiments of the Italian Armed Forces and representatives of the combatants, widows and mothers of the fallen, with King Victor Emmanuel III of Savoy at the head, welcomed the arrival of the body by moving to meet the Unknown Soldier; the latter was then carried by a group of those decorated with gold medals to the basilica of Santa Maria degli Angeli e dei Martiri. The ceremony on November 4, 1921 was the most important and well-attended patriotic event in united Italy, as one million people took part in it. This celebration also represented the recovery by Italians of the patriotic spirit that had been watered down by the suffering endured during World War I. The Altar of the Fatherland, originally conceived as an altar of the goddess Roma, thus also became the sacellum of the Unknown Soldier. Moreover, socialist political forces, during the parliamentary debate that later led to Italy's participation in World War I, were partly opposed to the country's direct intervention in this conflict. == The completion ==

The Vittoriano in these years (and until the 1940s) was an appreciated national symbol, an example of “modern” art, standing alongside the monuments of ancient Rome and those of Papal Rome, that is, relating to the two periods when Italy was one of the centers of world history; Primo Levi, already in the early 20th century, explained the choice of erecting the Vittoriano on the Capitoline Hill, which he metaphorically called the center of the “Third Rome,” recalling a future and hypothetical third epoch in the history of Italy, after ancient Rome and Papal Rome (the latter was seen as the natural consequence of the former: the “boundary” between the two was the fall of the Western Roman Empire), during which the city of Rome could again become a reference point for the world: The proximity of the “Third Rome” to the other two also indirectly conveyed the concept of unity, i.e., one of the ideals of the Risorgimento, whose goal was precisely Italian unification from a political, social and administrative point of view: the location of the Vittoriano in the heart of Rome's historic district is linked precisely to this political context. The Janiculum Hill, with busts of patriots, would then also be visible in the distance, which is instead an expression of the new post-Risorgimento Italy. Among them, the closest monument that can be seen from the top of the Vittoriano is the bell tower of the Palazzo Senatorio, which is located just behind the monument, adjacent to the Ara Coeli basilica. In this context, the “Royal Commission for the Monument to Victor Emmanuel II” was dissolved on February 19, 1921. In 1928 it was decided to fix the area adjacent to the Vittoriano by opening Via del Teatro di Marcello; this involved dismantling the seventeenth-century church of Santa Rita in Campitelli, which stood at the foot of the steps of the Ara Coeli basilica and was rebuilt, ten years later, near the Theatre of Marcellus. Excavation work brought to light the Insula dell'Ara Coeli, dating from the second century AD, which is still visible today on the left side of the Vittoriano. The landscaping of the area around the monument was completed between 1931 and 1933 by architect Raffaele De Vico, who designed the two tree-lined exedras with travertine steps. It is thus located at the Altar of the Fatherland, from which, on the other hand, one can see the side of the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier facing the outside of the building. Work to complete the Vittoriano eventually took place in 1935, with the creation of the Central Museum of the Risorgimento, which was inaugurated and opened to the public decades later, in 1970. The occasion also included the creation of a Flag Memorial, designated to house an exhibition of historic Italian military flags. the Flag Memorial was also inaugurated and opened to the public decades later, on November 4, 1968, on the occasion of National Unity and Armed Forces Day. The completion of the interior spaces, including the Crypt of the Unknown Soldier (with mosaics by Giulio Bargellini), was the work of Armando Brasini, former artistic director of the Vittoriano. The same architect also designed the buttressed brick elevation on Via di San Pietro in Carcere. In this context, in 1939, the management of the Vittoriano passed from the Ministry of Public Works to the Ministry of Education. == Fascism ==

The Vittoriano becomes a military symbol With the advent of fascism, the Vittoriano became one of the stages of the regime led by Benito Mussolini. The Vittoriano was also charged with symbolic significance by Mussolini, who chose it as the final stage of the March on Rome: on this occasion, the famous fascist demonstration ended with a tribute to the tomb of the Unknown Soldier. With World War I over and not ending according to expectations, so much so that its denouement was referred to as a “mutilated victory” because of the failure to comply with the London Pact (Italy had to give up some of the lands promised by the pact: northern Dalmatia and the “mandates” over the former German colonies and the non-Turkish territories of the former Ottoman Empire), Fascism made this issue one of its political agendas, often recalling the suffering and sacrifices suffered by the Italian people during the war. From 1928 to 1943, the Vittoriano appeared in 249 regime films distributed in Italian cinemas: 168 of these appearances (67.4 percent of the total) were related to a tribute to the Unknown Soldier, while in the remaining 81 (32.5 percent) the Vittoriano was the scene of a fascist event organized within its walls. Demolitions carried out by fascism In this context, the architect and engineer Gustavo Giovannoni proposed the construction near Piazza di Spagna of a monument comparable to the Vittoriano celebrating Fascist Italy, a project that was not followed up. This was not the only point of contact between liberal and fascist Italy: both aimed to forge a “new Italy,” and both had imperialistic tendencies. What differentiated them, however, was the way they wanted to pursue this goal: liberal Italy by leaving free will to the citizens, the fascist regime by coercion and violence. The general project of radical change, both urbanistic and in terms of the monumental presence, of the capital was called “Great Rome” by fascism. Again, the goal was to provide the capital with a more modern appearance that was more related to the political situation of the time. The most important urban planning work that was carried out was Via dell'Impero (the modern Via dei Fori Imperiali), which connects Piazza Venezia, where the Vittoriano stands, to Piazza del Colosseo. With the demolitions carried out during the Fascist regime, three macro-areas of Rome characterized by a homogeneous historical and architectural context were created: the “Monumental Rome,” which in turn is divided into Ancient Rome and Papal-Renaissance Rome; “Modern Rome,” the one built after the breach of Porta Pia (1870); and “Modern or Fascist Rome.” The Vittoriano, with the demolitions carried out by Fascism, was now fully visible from Via del Corso, with the corresponding perspective and scenic consequences: previously, the monument dedicated to Victor Emmanuel II, from the aforementioned point, could barely be glimpsed. Moreover, the Vittoriano was now also easily recognizable from the Colosseum, from which one could then take Via dell'Impero and reach Piazza Venezia. Unlike the demolitions of the 19th century and the beginning of the following one, during the Fascist regime all voices against the demolitions were silenced. Fascism, however, did not limit itself to demolishing historic buildings and constructing new ones, but carried out a vast renovation of ancient monuments with a view to providing Rome with a double distinctiveness: modern capital of the new Italy and a city strongly characterized by the presence of historical evidence. The latter aspect was especially related to the history of ancient Rome, for which fascism had a veritable cult. However, the greatest losses, from an artistic and historical point of view of Rome's monumental heritage, occurred in the first two decades after the breach of Porta Pia, that is, in the 1870s and 1880s. The demolition works ordered by Fascism suffered a setback due to the outbreak of World War II and then were finally cancelled in 1946, with the conflict having just ended. Rome's 1962 master plan then decreed the exact opposite: the preservation of the historic center and its monuments. The goal associated with the construction of Via dell'Impero was to create a new major road connecting Piazza Venezia, where the Vittoriano stands, with Piazza del Colosseo via the Imperial Fora. Fascism, in order to make the demolitions and related reconstructions more expeditious, abolished the aforementioned “Archaeological Commission,” assigning its powers directly to the government. As a consequence of these demolition and construction works, Piazza Venezia, and with it the Vittoriano, found itself at the urbanistic center of the district, with five streets converging on it, the most important of which was Via dell'Impero. Piazza Venezia was also completely redone, with the planting of tree exedras. The Vittoriano transformed into one of the stages of the regime With the advent of Fascism, the Vittoriano became one of the regime's stages for events aimed at displaying Italy's military virtues. The Altar of the Fascist Fallen, which was located on the Capitoline Hill, also had a similar role. Among the celebrations that took place at the Vittoriano during Fascism, those most related to the symbolism of the monument were the event that took place on May 24, 1935, which commemorated Italy's entry into the war 20 years earlier, and the one on November 9, 1938, which celebrated the 20th anniversary of Italy's victory in World War I. Another noteworthy event that was organized at the Vittoriano was the one held on December 18, 1935, which was simultaneously replicated throughout Italy and was called “Oro alla Patria” due to the fact that it was aimed at collecting metals useful to the war cause; it was necessary because of the economic sanctions against Fascist Italy decreed by the League of Nations in response to Italy's attack on the Ethiopian Empire, which led to the war of the same name. Queen Elena, who donated the royal family's wedding rings in a ceremony officiated at the Altar of the Fatherland, delivered an official speech, an excerpt of which reads: The speech was related to one of fascism's political messages: Victory redeemed by the fascist revolution and therefore no longer “mutilated.” == Oblivion ==

The return to the original symbolism With the fall of Fascism (July 25, 1943) Benito Mussolini was ousted from power and then arrested. King Victor Emmanuel III of Savoy then gave the task of forming a military government to Pietro Badoglio. A few weeks later, on September 3, the Badoglio government signed with the Allies the Armistice of Cassibile, which was announced on September 8, 1943 by Badoglio himself, by which Italy announced its surrender to the Anglo-American troops. The first instrumental use of the monument was the deposition, on February 11, 1947, of a laurel wreath on the tomb of the Unknown Soldier and the concomitant organization of a general strike, during which incidents were recorded in Piazza Venezia between opposing political factions. In 1955, the first tenth anniversary of the Liberation, the President of the Italian Republic for the first time laid a laurel wreath in tribute to the Unknown Soldier during the April 25 celebrations. of the Italian Social Movement. This flag was added to the war flags of the disbanded regiments of the army that had been stored in the Vittoriano since 1935 pending the inauguration of a Flag Memorial open to the public. Overall, the Flag Memorial was inaugurated and opened to the public on November 4, 1968, on the occasion of National Unity and Armed Forces Day. Decline and closure In the 1960s a slow disinterest on the part of Italians began for the Vittoriano. It was no longer considered one of the symbols of national identity, but began to be seen as an unwieldy monument representing an Italy outdated by history. As a result of the increasingly evident state of neglect, increasingly fewer people attended the celebrations taking place at the Vittoriano, including those involving the Unknown Soldier. They were placed sideways, at each propylaeum. In the wake of the political climate of the 1970s and due to its closure to the public, the Vittoriano experienced a long period of oblivion by both institutions and citizens. In 1975 it passed into the charge of the Ministry of Education to the newly formed Ministry of Cultural Heritage, a department to which it still belongs. while in 1931, at an event, the Futurists irreverently called it a “urinal.” Journalists and writers controversially dubbed the monument a “wedding cake” and a “typewriter.” At the end of the 1980s an opinion movement arose that wanted its “ruinization,” that is, its complete abandonment to itself which would be followed by a phase of partial dismantling, with the removal of the most important artistic works, which would be musealized, and the conversion of the monument to a mere elevated promenade site with the demolition of its most imposing and symbolic parts, such as part of the upper portico and propylaea. In this way, the Vittoriano would no longer stand out in the eyes of visitors and would have a monumentality comparable to that of the surrounding buildings. More generally, the Vittoriano is rich in allegorical meanings that according to its makers had to be clear and unambiguous. This goal was not achieved, however, as throughout its history the Vittoriano has often had ambiguous interpretations. This green area was highly symbolic: it was created in 1923 on the basis of a provision of the undersecretary of public education Mario Lupi, who arranged for the creation, throughout Italy, of parks or tree-lined avenues along which there was a number of trees at least equal to the number of fallen and missing in the municipal community. Each of these trees was characterized by the presence of a plaque bearing the name of a fallen or missing person from World War I. == Revival ==

It was the President of the Italian Republic Carlo Azeglio Ciampi, at the beginning of the 21st century, who began a work of revival and enhancement of Italian patriotic symbols, including the Vittoriano. Through Ciampi's initiative, the Vittoriano regained the symbolic importance it once had. The Vittoriano was then officially opened to the public the following November 4, on the occasion of the commemoration of National Unity and Armed Forces Day. On that occasion Ciampi said: From November 4, 2000 onward, the symbolically most important ceremonies of the Anniversary of the Liberation of Italy (April 25), Italian Republic Day (June 2) and National Unity and Armed Forces Day (November 4) have been taking place permanently at the Vittoriano. Some of these interventions were also carried out with part of the revenue from the lottery, according to the provisions of Law No. 662 of December 23, 1996. Carlo Azeglio Ciampi, referring to the presence, among the works of art in the Vittoriano, of statues of Italian cities and regions stated: The rediscovery of the symbolic value was also accompanied by a more serene evaluation of the architectural aspects: the Vittoriano is now seen by the most up-to-date art critics as an important step in the search for a new “national style,” which was to characterize the newly constituted Kingdom of Italy. Today, the Vittoriano is an excellent example of the art of the first period of national unity, a fusion of eclecticism and neoclassicism, both in itself and in the numerous works of art it houses. This revitalization of the Vittoriano has gone hand in hand with the constant and increasing work of enhancing other Italian patriotic symbols. later the Regional Directorate of Museums of Lazio. In 2020, the monument was united with the nearby National Museum of Palazzo Venezia within a single administration, creating a new entity with special autonomy. == See also ==