Character theory

Characters of irreducible representations encode many important properties of a group and can thus be used to study its structure. Character theory is an essential tool in the classification of finite simple groups. Close to half of the proof of the Feit–Thompson theorem involves intricate calculations with character values. Easier, but still essential, results that use character theory include Burnside's theorem (a purely group-theoretic proof of Burnside's theorem has since been found, but that proof came over half a century after Burnside's original proof), and a theorem of Richard Brauer and Michio Suzuki stating that a finite simple group cannot have a generalized quaternion group as its Sylow -subgroup. ==Definitions==

Let be a finite-dimensional vector space over a field and let be a representation of a group on . The character of is the function given by :\chi_{\rho}(g) = \operatorname{Tr}(\rho(g)) where is the trace. A character is called irreducible or simple if is an irreducible representation. The degree of the character is the dimension of ; in characteristic zero this is equal to the value . A character of degree 1 is called linear. When is finite and has characteristic zero, the kernel of the character is the normal subgroup: :\ker \chi_\rho := \left \lbrace g \in G \mid \chi_{\rho}(g) = \chi_{\rho}(1) \right \rbrace, which is precisely the kernel of the representation . However, the character is not a group homomorphism in general. ==Properties==

• Characters are class functions, that is, they each take a constant value on a given conjugacy class. More precisely, the set of irreducible characters of a given group into a field form a basis of the -vector space of all class functions . • Isomorphic representations have the same characters. Over a field of characteristic , two representations are isomorphic if and only if they have the same character. • If a representation is the direct sum of subrepresentations, then the corresponding character is the sum of the characters of those subrepresentations. • If a character of the finite group is restricted to a subgroup , then the result is also a character of . • Every character value is a sum of -th roots of unity, where is the degree (that is, the dimension of the associated vector space) of the representation with character and is the order of . In particular, when , every such character value is an algebraic integer. • If and is irreducible, then [G:C_G(x)]\frac{\chi(x)}{\chi(1)} is an algebraic integer for all in . • If is algebraically closed and does not divide the order of , then the number of irreducible characters of is equal to the number of conjugacy classes of . Furthermore, in this case, the degrees of the irreducible characters are divisors of the order of (and they even divide if ). Arithmetic properties Let ρ and σ be representations of . Then the following identities hold: • \chi_{\rho \oplus \sigma} = \chi_\rho + \chi_\sigma • \chi_{\rho \otimes \sigma} = \chi_\rho \cdot \chi_\sigma • \chi_{\rho^*} = \overline {\chi_\rho} • \chi_{{\scriptscriptstyle \rm{Alt}^2} \rho}(g) = \tfrac{1}{2}\! \left[ \left(\chi_\rho (g) \right)^2 - \chi_\rho (g^2) \right] • \chi_{{\scriptscriptstyle \rm{Sym}^2} \rho}(g) = \tfrac{1}{2}\! \left[ \left(\chi_\rho (g) \right)^2 + \chi_\rho (g^2) \right] where is the direct sum, is the tensor product, denotes the conjugate transpose of , and is the alternating product and is the symmetric square, which is determined by \rho \otimes \rho = \left(\rho \wedge \rho \right) \oplus \textrm{Sym}^2 \rho. ==Character tables==

The irreducible complex characters of a finite group form a character table which encodes much useful information about the group in a compact form. Each row is labelled by an irreducible representation and the entries in the row are the characters of the representation on the respective conjugacy class of . The columns are labelled by (representatives of) the conjugacy classes of . It is customary to label the first row by the character of the trivial representation, which is the trivial action of on a 1-dimensional vector space by \rho(g)=1 for all g\in G . Each entry in the first row is therefore 1. Similarly, it is customary to label the first column by the identity. Therefore, the first column contains the degree of each irreducible character. Here is the character table of :C_3 = \langle u \mid u^{3} = 1 \rangle, the cyclic group with three elements and generator u: where is a primitive third root of unity. The character table is always square, because the number of irreducible representations is equal to the number of conjugacy classes. Orthogonality relations The space of complex-valued class functions of a finite group has a natural inner product: :\langle \alpha, \beta\rangle := \frac{1}{\mathopen\vert G\mathclose\vert}\sum_{g \in G} \alpha(g) \overline{\beta(g)} where is the complex conjugate of . With respect to this inner product, the irreducible characters form an orthonormal basis for the space of class-functions, and this yields the orthogonality relation for the rows of the character table: :\langle \chi_i, \chi_j \rangle = \begin{cases} 0 & \mbox{ if } i \ne j, \\ 1 & \mbox{ if } i = j. \end{cases} For in , applying the same inner product to the columns of the character table yields: :\sum_{\chi_i} \chi_i(g) \overline{\chi_i(h)} = \begin{cases} \mathopen\vert C_G(g) \mathclose\vert, & \mbox{ if } g, h \mbox{ are conjugate } \\ 0 & \mbox{ otherwise.}\end{cases} where the sum is over all of the irreducible characters of and the symbol denotes the order of the centralizer of . Note that since and are conjugate iff they are in the same column of the character table, this implies that the columns of the character table are orthogonal. The orthogonality relations can aid many computations including: • Decomposing an unknown character as a linear combination of irreducible characters. • Constructing the complete character table when only some of the irreducible characters are known. • Finding the orders of the centralizers of representatives of the conjugacy classes of a group. • Finding the order of the group. Character table properties Certain properties of the group can be deduced from its character table: • The order of is given by the sum of the squares of the entries of the first column (the degrees of the irreducible characters). More generally, the sum of the squares of the absolute values of the entries in any column gives the order of the centralizer of an element of the corresponding conjugacy class. • All normal subgroups of (and thus whether or not is simple) can be recognised from its character table. The kernel of a character is the set of elements in for which ; this is a normal subgroup of . Each normal subgroup of is the intersection of the kernels of some of the irreducible characters of . • The commutator subgroup of is the intersection of the kernels of the linear characters of . • If is finite, then since the character table is square and has as many rows as conjugacy classes, it follows that is abelian iff each conjugacy class is a singleton iff the character table of is |G| \!\times\! |G| iff each irreducible character is linear. • It follows, using some results of Richard Brauer from modular representation theory, that the prime divisors of the orders of the elements of each conjugacy class of a finite group can be deduced from its character table (an observation of Graham Higman). The character table does not in general determine the group up to isomorphism: for example, the quaternion group and the dihedral group of elements, , have the same character table. Brauer asked whether the character table, together with the knowledge of how the powers of elements of its conjugacy classes are distributed, determines a finite group up to isomorphism. In 1964, this was answered in the negative by E. C. Dade. The linear representations of are themselves a group under the tensor product, since the tensor product of 1-dimensional vector spaces is again 1-dimensional. That is, if \rho_1:G\to V_1 and \rho_2:G\to V_2 are linear representations, then \rho_1\otimes\rho_2 (g)=(\rho_1(g)\otimes\rho_2(g)) defines a new linear representation. This gives rise to a group of linear characters, called the character group under the operation [\chi_1*\chi_2](g)=\chi_1(g)\chi_2(g). This group is connected to Dirichlet characters and Fourier analysis. ==Induced characters and Frobenius reciprocity==

The characters discussed in this section are assumed to be complex-valued. Let be a subgroup of the finite group . Given a character of , let denote its restriction to . Let be a character of . Ferdinand Georg Frobenius showed how to construct a character of from , using what is now known as Frobenius reciprocity. Since the irreducible characters of form an orthonormal basis for the space of complex-valued class functions of , there is a unique class function of with the property that : \langle \theta^{G}, \chi \rangle_G = \langle \theta,\chi_H \rangle_H for each irreducible character of (the leftmost inner product is for class functions of and the rightmost inner product is for class functions of ). Since the restriction of a character of to the subgroup is again a character of , this definition makes it clear that is a non-negative integer combination of irreducible characters of , so is indeed a character of . It is known as the character of induced from . The defining formula of Frobenius reciprocity can be extended to general complex-valued class functions. Given a matrix representation of , Frobenius later gave an explicit way to construct a matrix representation of , known as the representation induced from , and written analogously as . This led to an alternative description of the induced character . This induced character vanishes on all elements of which are not conjugate to any element of . Since the induced character is a class function of , it is only now necessary to describe its values on elements of . If one writes as a disjoint union of right cosets of , say :G = Ht_1 \cup \ldots \cup Ht_n, then, given an element of , we have: : \theta^G(h) = \sum_{i \ : \ t_iht_i^{-1} \in H} \theta \left (t_iht_i^{-1} \right ). Because is a class function of , this value does not depend on the particular choice of coset representatives. This alternative description of the induced character sometimes allows explicit computation from relatively little information about the embedding of in , and is often useful for calculation of particular character tables. When is the trivial character of , the induced character obtained is known as the permutation character of (on the cosets of ). The general technique of character induction and later refinements found numerous applications in finite group theory and elsewhere in mathematics, in the hands of mathematicians such as Emil Artin, Richard Brauer, Walter Feit and Michio Suzuki, as well as Frobenius himself. ==Mackey decomposition==

The Mackey decomposition was defined and explored by George Mackey in the context of Lie groups, but is a powerful tool in the character theory and representation theory of finite groups. Its basic form concerns the way a character (or module) induced from a subgroup of a finite group behaves on restriction back to a (possibly different) subgroup of , and makes use of the decomposition of into -double cosets. If G = \bigcup_{t \in T} HtK is a disjoint union, and is a complex class function of , then Mackey's formula states that :\left( \theta^{G}\right)_K = \sum_{ t \in T} \left(\left [\theta^{t} \right ]_{t^{-1}Ht \cap K}\right)^{K}, where is the class function of defined by for all in . There is a similar formula for the restriction of an induced module to a subgroup, which holds for representations over any ring, and has applications in a wide variety of algebraic and topological contexts. Mackey decomposition, in conjunction with Frobenius reciprocity, yields a well-known and useful formula for the inner product of two class functions and induced from respective subgroups and , whose utility lies in the fact that it only depends on how conjugates of and intersect each other. The formula (with its derivation) is: :\begin{align} \left \langle \theta^{G},\psi^{G} \right \rangle &= \left \langle \left(\theta^{G}\right)_{K},\psi \right \rangle \\ &= \sum_{ t \in T} \left \langle \left( \left [\theta^{t} \right ]_{t^{-1}Ht \cap K}\right)^{K}, \psi \right \rangle \\ &= \sum_{t \in T} \left \langle \left(\theta^{t} \right)_{t^{-1}Ht \cap K},\psi_{t^{-1}Ht \cap K} \right \rangle, \end{align} (where is a full set of -double coset representatives, as before). This formula is often used when and are linear characters, in which case all the inner products appearing in the right hand sum are either or , depending on whether or not the linear characters and have the same restriction to . If and are both trivial characters, then the inner product simplifies to . =="Twisted" dimension==

One may interpret the character of a representation as the "twisted" dimension of a vector space. Treating the character as a function of the elements of the group , its value at the identity is the dimension of the space, since . Accordingly, one can view the other values of the character as "twisted" dimensions. One can find analogs or generalizations of statements about dimensions to statements about characters or representations. A sophisticated example of this occurs in the theory of monstrous moonshine: the -invariant is the graded dimension of an infinite-dimensional graded representation of the Monster group, and replacing the dimension with the character gives the McKay–Thompson series for each element of the Monster group. ==Characters of Lie groups and Lie algebras==

If G is a Lie group and \rho a finite-dimensional representation of G, the character \chi_\rho of \rho is defined precisely as for any group as :\chi_\rho(g)=\operatorname{Tr}(\rho(g)). Meanwhile, if \mathfrak g is a Lie algebra and \rho a finite-dimensional representation of \mathfrak g, we can define the character \chi_\rho by :\chi_\rho(X)=\operatorname{Tr}(e^{\rho(X)}). The character will satisfy \chi_\rho(\operatorname{Ad}_g(X))=\chi_\rho(X) for all g in the associated Lie group G and all X\in\mathfrak g. If we have a Lie group representation and an associated Lie algebra representation, the character \chi_\rho of the Lie algebra representation is related to the character \Chi_\rho of the group representation by the formula :\chi_\rho(X)=\Chi_\rho(e^X). Suppose now that \mathfrak g is a complex semisimple Lie algebra with Cartan subalgebra \mathfrak h. The value of the character \chi_\rho of an irreducible representation \rho of \mathfrak g is determined by its values on \mathfrak h. The restriction of the character to \mathfrak h can easily be computed in terms of the weight spaces, as follows: :\chi_\rho(H) = \sum_\lambda m_\lambda e^{\lambda(H)},\quad H\in\mathfrak h, where the sum is over all weights \lambda of \rho and where m_\lambda is the multiplicity of \lambda. The (restriction to \mathfrak h of the) character can be computed more explicitly by the Weyl character formula. ==See also==