Army The main army of the Qing Empire, the
Eight Banners Army, was in decline under the Kangxi Emperor. It was smaller than it had been at its peak under
Hong Taiji and in the early reign of the
Shunzhi Emperor; however, it was larger than in the
Yongzheng and
Qianlong emperors' reigns. In addition, the
Green Standard Army was still powerful with generals such as Tuhai, Fei Yanggu, Zhang Yong, Zhou Peigong,
Shi Lang, Mu Zhan, Shun Shike and Wang Jingbao. The main reason for this decline was a change in system between the Kangxi and Qianlong emperors' reigns. The Kangxi Emperor continued using the traditional military system implemented by his predecessors, which was more efficient and stricter. According to the system, a commander who returned from a battle alone (with all his men dead) would be put to death, and likewise for a foot soldier. This was meant to motivate both commanders and soldiers alike to fight valiantly in war because there was no benefit for the sole survivor in a battle.
Revolt of the Three Feudatories After the Qing takeover of China in 1644, large parts of the south and west were given as
fiefs to three Ming generals who aided the Qing; in 1673 the three feudatories were controlled by
Wu Sangui,
Geng Jingzhong, and
Shang Zhixin. Going against the advice of most of his advisors, Kangxi attempted to force the feudal princes to give up their lands and retire to Manchuria, sparking a rebellion that lasted eight years. For years afterwards Kangxi ruminated on his mistakes and blamed himself in part for the loss of life during the revolt. Wu Sangui's forces overran most of southwest China and he tried to ally himself with local generals such as
Wang Fuchen. The Kangxi Emperor employed generals including
Zhou Peigong and
Tuhai to suppress the rebellion, and also granted clemency to common people caught up in the war. He intended to personally lead the armies to crush the rebels but his subjects advised him against it. The Kangxi Emperor used mainly Han Chinese
Green Standard Army soldiers to crush the rebels while the Manchu Banners took a backseat. The revolt ended with victory for Qing forces in 1681.
Taiwan In 1683, the naval forces of the Ming loyalists on
Taiwan—organized under the
Zheng dynasty as the
Kingdom of Tungning—were
defeated off Penghu by 300-odd ships under the
Qing admiral Shi Lang.
Koxinga's grandson
Zheng Keshuang surrendered Tungning a few days later and Taiwan became part of the Qing Empire. Zheng Keshuang moved to Beijing, joined the
Qing nobility as the "Duke Haicheng" (), and was inducted into the
Eight Banners as a member of the
Han Plain Red Banner. His soldiers—including the rattan-shield troops (,
tengpaiying)—were similarly entered into the Eight Banners, notably serving
against Russian Cossacks at Albazin. A score of Ming princes had joined the Zheng dynasty on Taiwan, including Prince
Zhu Shugui of Ningjing and Prince Honghuan (
朱弘桓), the son of
Zhu Yihai. The Qing sent most of the 17 Ming princes still living on Taiwan back to mainland China, where they spent the rest of their lives. The Prince of Ningjing and his five concubines, however, committed suicide rather than submit to capture. Their palace was used as Shi Lang's headquarters in 1683, but he
memorialized the emperor to convert it into a
Mazu temple as a propaganda measure in quieting remaining resistance on Taiwan. The emperor approved its dedication as the
Grand Matsu Temple the next year and, honoring the goddess
Mazu for her supposed assistance during the Qing invasion, promoted her to "Empress of Heaven" (
Tianhou) from her previous status as a "heavenly consort" (
Tianfei).
Belief in Mazu remains so widespread on Taiwan that her annual celebrations can gather hundreds of thousands of people; she is sometimes even
syncretized with
Guanyin and the
Virgin Mary. The end of the rebel stronghold and capture of the Ming princes allowed the Kangxi Emperor to relax the
Sea Ban and permit resettlement of the
Fujian and
Guangdong coasts. The financial and other incentives to new settlers particularly drew the
Hakka, who would have
continuous low-level conflict with the returning
Punti people for the next few centuries.
Russia 's
Nouveaux Memoires, 1696) In the 1650s, the Qing Empire engaged the
Tsardom of Russia in a series of
border conflicts along the
Amur River region, which concluded with the Qing gaining control of the area after the
Siege of Albazin. The Russians invaded the northern frontier again in the 1680s. A series of battles. In 1685, the Qing used former Ming loyalist
Han Chinese naval specialists who had served under the Zheng family in Taiwan in the siege of
Albazin. Former Ming loyalist Han Chinese troops who had served under
Zheng Chenggong and who specialized at fighting with rattan shields and swords (Tengpaiying, ) were recommended to Kangxi to reinforce Albazin against the Russians. Kangxi was impressed by a demonstration of their techniques and ordered 500 of them to defend Albazin, under Ho Yu, a former Koxinga follower, and Lin Hsing-chu, a former General of Wu Sangui. These rattan shield troops did not suffer a single casualty when they defeated and cut down Russian forces traveling by rafts on the river, only using the rattan shields and swords while fighting naked. Negotiations culminated in the
Treaty of Nerchinsk of 1689, by which a border was agreed between Russia and China.
Mongolia The Inner Mongolian
Chahar leader
Ligdan Khan, a descendant of Genghis Khan, opposed and fought against the Qing until he died of
smallpox in 1634. Thereafter, the Inner Mongols under his son
Ejei Khan surrendered to the Qing and he was given the title of Prince (Qin Wang, 親王). The Inner Mongolian nobility now became closely tied to the Qing royal family and intermarried with them extensively. Ejei Khan died in 1661 and was succeeded by his brother Abunai. After Abunai showed disaffection with Manchu Qing rule, he was placed under house arrest in 1669 in
Shenyang and the Kangxi Emperor gave his title to his son Borni. Abunai bided his time then, with his brother Lubuzung, revolted against the Qing in 1675 during the
Revolt of the Three Feudatories, with 3,000 Chahar Mongol followers joining in on the revolt. The revolt was put down within two months, the Qing defeating the rebels in battle on 20 April 1675, killing Abunai and all his followers. Their title was abolished, all Chahar Mongol royal males were executed even if they were born to Manchu Qing princesses, and all Chahar Mongol royal females were sold into slavery except the Manchu Qing princesses. The Chahar Mongols were then put under the direct control of the Qing Emperor unlike the other Inner Mongol leagues which maintained their autonomy. during the campaign of 1696 The Outer
Khalkha Mongols had preserved their independence, and only paid tribute to the Qing Empire. However, a conflict between the houses of Jasagtu Khan and Tösheetü Khan led to a dispute between the Khalkha and the
Dzungars over the influence of
Tibetan Buddhism. In 1688, the Dzungar chief,
Galdan Boshugtu Khan, attacked the Khalkha from the west and invaded their territory. The Khalkha royal families and the first
Jebtsundamba Khutuktu crossed the
Gobi Desert and sought help from the Qing Empire in return for submission to Qing authority. In 1690, the Dzungars and Qing forces clashed at the
Battle of Ulan Butung in
Inner Mongolia, in which the Qing eventually emerged as the victor. In 1696 and 1697 the Kangxi Emperor personally led campaigns against the Dzungars in the early
Dzungar–Qing War. The western section of the Qing army defeated Galdan's forces at the
Battle of Jao Modo and Galdan died in the following year.
Manchu Hoifan and Ula rebellion against the Qing In 1700, some 20,000 Qiqihar
Xibe were resettled in
Guisui, modern
Inner Mongolia, and 36,000 Songyuan Xibe were resettled in
Shenyang,
Liaoning. The relocation of the Xibe from Qiqihar is believed by Liliya M. Gorelova to be linked to the Qing's annihilation of the Manchu clan Hoifan (Hoifa) in 1697 and the Manchu tribe Ula in 1703 after they rebelled against the Qing; both Hoifan and Ula were wiped out.
Tibet In 1701, the Kangxi Emperor ordered the reconquest of
Kangding and other border towns in western
Sichuan that had been taken by the Tibetans. The Manchu forces
stormed Dartsedo and secured the border with Tibet and the lucrative
tea-horse trade. The Tibetan
desi (regent)
Sangye Gyatso concealed the death of the
5th Dalai Lama in 1682, and only informed the emperor in 1697. He moreover kept relations with Dzungar enemies of the Qing. All this evoked the great displeasure of the Kangxi Emperor. Eventually Sangye Gyatso was toppled and killed by the
Khoshut ruler
Lhazang Khan in 1705. As a reward for ridding him of his old enemy the
Dalai Lama, the Kangxi Emperor appointed Lhazang Khan Regent of Tibet (). The
Dzungar Khanate, a confederation of
Oirat tribes based in parts of what is now
Xinjiang, continued to threaten the Qing Empire and invaded
Tibet in 1717. They took control of
Lhasa with a 6,000 strong army and killed Lhazang Khan. The Dzungars held on to the city for three years and at the
Battle of the Salween River defeated a Qing army sent to the region in 1718. The Qing did not take control of Lhasa until 1720, when the Kangxi Emperor
sent a larger expedition force there to defeat the Dzungars.
Muslims The Kangxi Emperor incited anti-Muslim sentiment among the Mongols of
Qinghai (Kokonor) in order to gain support against the
Dzungar Oirat Mongol leader
Galdan. Kangxi claimed that Chinese Muslims inside China such as
Turkic Muslims in Qinghai were plotting with
Galdan, who he falsely claimed converted to Islam. Kangxi falsely claimed that Galdan had spurned and turned his back on Buddhism and the Dalai Lama and that he was plotting to install a Muslim as ruler of China after invading it in a conspiracy with Chinese Muslims. Kangxi also distrusted Muslims of Turfan and Hami.
Chinese nobility The Kangxi Emperor granted the title of Wujing Boshi (
五經博士;
Wǔjīng Bóshì) to the descendants of
Shao Yong,
Zhu Xi,
Zhuansun Shi, Ran family (
Ran Qiu,
Ran Geng,
Ran Yong),
Bu Shang,
Yan Yan (disciple of Confucius), and the
Duke of Zhou's offspring. ==Economic achievements==