Early history Chinese clay figurine of a
Sogdian man (an
Eastern Iranian person) wearing a distinctive cap and face veil, possibly a camel rider or even a
Zoroastrian priest engaging in a ritual at a
fire temple, since face veils were used to avoid contaminating the holy fire with breath or saliva;
Museum of Oriental Art (Turin), Italy. Throughout much of recorded
Chinese history, there was little attempt by Chinese authors to separate the concepts of nationality, culture, and ethnicity. Those outside of the reach of imperial control and dominant patterns of Chinese culture were thought of as separate groups of people regardless of whether they would today be considered as a separate ethnicity. The self-conceptualization of
Han largely revolved around this center-periphery cultural divide. Thus, the process of Sinicization throughout history had as much to do with the spreading of imperial rule and culture as it did with actual ethnic migration. This understanding persisted (with some changes during the
Qing dynasty due to the importation of Western ideas) until the
Communists seized power in 1949. Their understanding of minorities had been heavily influenced by the policies of the Soviet leader
Joseph Stalin and his
1913 pamphlet on the subject—and they also influenced the Communist regimes in the neighbouring countries of
Vietnam and
Laos—but the Soviet definition of minorities did not cleanly map onto the Chinese people's historical definition of minorities. Soviet thinking about minorities was based on the belief that a nation consisted of people who spoke and wrote a common language, people whose culture was historic, and historic territory. Therefore, the people who inhabited each nation had the theoretical right to secede from a proposed federated government. This differed from the previous way of thinking mainly in that instead of defining all those under imperial rule as Chinese, the nation (as defined as a space upon which power is projected) and ethnicity (the identity of the governed) were now separate; being under central rule no longer automatically meant being defined as Chinese. The Soviet model as applied to China gave rise to the autonomous regions in China; these areas were thought to be their own nations that had theoretical autonomy from the central government. During
World War II, the American Asiatic Association published an entry in the 40th volume of their academic journal,
Asia, concerning the problem of whether
Chinese Muslims were Chinese or a separate 'ethnic minority', and the factors which led to either classification. It concluded that the reason Chinese Muslims were considered separate was because of different factors like religion, culture, military feudalism, and that considering them a "racial minority" was wrong. It also came to the conclusion that the Japanese military spokesman was the only person who was propagating the false assertion that Chinese Muslims had "
racial unity", which was disproved by the fact that Muslims in China were composed of multitudes of different races, separate from each other as were the "Germans and English", such as the Mongol Hui of Hezhou, Salar Hui of Qinghai, and Chan Tou Hui of Turkistan. The Japanese were trying to spread the lie that Chinese Muslims were one race, in order to propagate the claim that they should be separated from China into an "independent political organization."
Distinguishing nationalities in the PRC Early documents of the People's Republic of China (PRC), such as the 1982 constitution, followed the
Soviet practice of identifying '
nationalities' in the sense of ethnic groups (the concept is not to be confused with state citizenship). The Chinese term (), made during the Republican period, translates this Soviet concept. The English translation (common in official documents) of 'nationality' again follows Soviet practice; in order to avoid confusion, however, alternative phraseology such as 'ethnicity' or 'ethnic group' is often used. Since the
anthropological concept of
ethnicity does not precisely match the Chinese or Soviet concepts (which, after all, are defined and regulated by the state), some scholars use the
neologism zuqun (, '
ethnic group') to unambiguously refer to ethnicity. Since this would lead to absurd results—every village could hardly send a representative to the
National People's Congress—the social scientists attempted to construct coherent groupings of minorities using language as the main criterion for differentiation. Thus some villages with very different cultural practices and histories were lumped together under the same ethnonym. For example, the "
Zhuang" ethnic group largely served as a catch-all for various hill villages in
Guangxi province. The actual census taking of who was and was not a minority further eroded the neat differentiating lines the social scientists had drawn up. Individual ethnic status was often awarded based on family tree histories. If one had a father (or mother, for ethnic groups that were considered
matrilineal) that had a surname considered to belong to a particular ethnic group, then one was awarded the coveted minority status. This had the result that villages that had previously thought of themselves as homogenous and essentially Han were now divided between those with ethnic identity and those without. The team of social scientists that assembled the list of all the ethnic groups also described what they considered to be the key differentiating attributes between each group, including culture, custom, and language. The center then used this list of attributes to select representatives of each group to perform on television and radio in an attempt to reinforce the government's narrative of China as a multi-ethnic state and to prevent the culture of the minority ethnic groups from assimilating by the Han and the rest of the world. However, with the development of modern technology, these attempts brought little effect. In fact, many of those labeled as specific minorities bore no relationship to the music, clothing, and other practices presented with images and representations of "their people" in the media. Under this process, 39 ethnic groups were recognized by the
first national census in 1954. This further increased to 54 by the
second national census in 1964, with the Lhoba group added in 1965. The last change was the addition of the
Jino people in 1979, bringing the number of recognized ethnic groups to the current 56.
Reform and opening up However, as China started
reform and opening up post-1979, many Han acquired enough money to begin to travel. One of the favorite travel experiences of the wealthy was visits to minority areas, to see the exotic rituals of the minority peoples. Responding to this interest, many minority entrepreneurs, despite themselves perhaps never having grown up practicing the dances, rituals, or songs themselves, began to cater to these tourists by performing acts similar to what the older generation or the local residents told. In this way, the groups of people named
Zhuang or other named minorities have begun to have more in common with their fellow co-ethnics, as they have adopted similar self-conceptions in response to the economic demand of consumers for their performances. The categorization of 55 minority groups was a major step forward from denial of the existence of different ethnic groups in China which had been the policy of
Sun Yet-Sen's Nationalist government that came to power in 1911, which also engaged in the common use of derogatory names to refer to minorities (a practice officially abolished in 1951). The Chinese model for identifying and categorizing ethnic minorities established at the founding of the PRC followed the Soviet model, drawing inspiration from
Joseph Stalin's 1913 "four commons" criteria to identify ethnic groups: "(1) a distinct language; (2) a recognized indigenous homeland or common territory; (3) a common economic life; and (4) a strong sense of identity and distinctive customs, including dress, religion and foods." Following the breakup of the Soviet Union intellectuals and policymakers within China began to argue that the designation of minority groups could be a threat to the country. Violence in Xinjiang and Tibet provided evidence for this argument. Beijing University professor Ma Rong argued that the
Chinese Communist Party (CCP) had unwittingly created a "dual structure" of governance in which the representation and identity given to recognized ethnic groups would increase ethnocultural differences and create social conflict. He recommended new policies of ethnic fusion and assimilation. These proposals made by Ma and others were controversial at the time, but they would find a place at the heart of the policy of the
general secretaryship of Xi Jinping. Xi has shifted state policy towards assimilation in what he calls the "grand minzu fusion" or "the coalescing of blood and minds." The CCP under Xi has reacted to violence committed by a number of
Uyghurs by the imprisonment of this group in the
Xinjiang internment camps. In 2020, a Han Chinese person was named director of the
State Ethnic Affairs Commission for the first time since 1954. ==Ethnic groups==