Chongryon

Long-term ethnic Korean residents in Japan primarily consist of those, and descendants of, ethnic Koreans who settled in Japan as: • Migrants during Japan's rule over Korea (1910–1945) • Conscripted labourers during the Second World War • Post-World War II refugees, especially from Jeju island escaping the 1948 Jeju massacre. A 1953 government survey revealed that 93% were from the southern half of the Korean peninsula. From 1910 to 1945, ethnic Koreans were Japanese nationals. The end of the Second World War left the nationality status of Koreans in an ambiguous position, as no recognized functional government existed on the Korean Peninsula (the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea, a government-in-exile, was only somewhat recognized internationally and was not a formal Korean government until South Korea's formation in 1948). Their nationality was provisionally registered under the name of Joseon (Chōsen in Japanese, , ), the old name of undivided Korea. The 1948 declaration of independence by both South and North Korea made Joseon a defunct nation. Those with Joseon nationality were allowed to re-register their nationality to a South Korean one; however the same did not apply to North Korea due to the fact that Japan only recognises South Korea as the legitimate government of Korea, so supporters of the North retained their Joseon nationality. Ethnic Koreans in Japan established the League of Koreans in Japan (재일본조선인연맹) in 1945, which followed a socialist ideology, and was banned in 1949 by the order of Allied occupation army. The United Democratic Front of Korea in Japan (재일조선민주전선) was established in 1951, which was banned due to suspected involvement in the 1952 May Day riots. In 1952, the North Korean leader Kim Il Sung called on the socialist Zainichi Korean movement to be coordinated in close contact with the North Korean government, and to fight, not for a socialist revolution in Japan, but for the socialist reunification of the Korean peninsula. Chongryon was established on 25 May 1955 by Han Duk-su, who was an activist for leftist labor movements in Japan. In the late 1950s, Chongryon conducted a campaign to persuade Zainichi Koreans to migrate to North Korea in collaboration with Tokyo. Approximately 70,000 people moved to North Korea under this campaign during a two-year period from 1960 through 1961. The campaign was vehemently opposed by Mindan which organised hunger strikes and train obstructions. Some 87,000 Zainichi Koreans and about 6,000 Japanese spouses moved to the North. Following the normalization of ties between Japan and South Korea, migration to North Korea slowed to a trickle but continued up to 1984. Overall, 93,340 people moved to North Korea from Japan between 1959 and 1984 through the efforts of Chongryon. The migrants were persuaded by propaganda describing North Korea as a utopia wealthier than Japan with better human rights protections. Viewing Koreans as outsiders, the Japanese government collaborated with the program. Zainichi Koreans who migrated to North Korea were mostly disappointed by the living conditions they found there. They were also discriminated against due to their Japanese origins under the songbun social classification system. Most were assigned to live in rural areas. Many were made to work at collective farms, mines, and coal pits. They were kept under strict surveillance, with those caught attempting to defect tortured and sent to labor camps. Though barred from returning to Japan, they were allowed to maintain contact with relatives there and collect financial remittances from them, which ended up becoming a major source of income for the North Korean government. According to Andrei Lankov: "Most of the returnees were gravely disappointed by the destitution they saw upon arrival. They soon realized, however, that there was no way back. Stuck in a destitute police state, they (and their children) now found themselves in a strange position: they were simultaneously privileged and discriminated against. On the one hand, the returnees were seen as ideologically unreliable. On the other hand, most of them received money transfers from Japanese family members who were wise enough not to go to the Socialist Paradise. This allowed them to enjoy a life that was affluent by North Korean standards." In 1990, Ha Su-to, former vice chief of organization for Chongryon who was expelled in 1972 for demanding democratic reforms, led a rally in Tokyo of 500 to protest against North Korea's human rights violations, in which protesters accused North Korea of holding the ex-Zainichi returnees captive to siphon money off remittances from their relatives in Japan. In the 1990s, Chongryon membership began declining, with younger generations taking Japanese or South Korean citizenship. It was also around this time that remittances to North Korea began to dry up as the immediate relatives of the first-generation migrants began to die and the subsequent generations had no desire to send money to people they had never met. This resulted in a downgrade in the economic status of the second and third generation descendants of the migrants. ==Ideology==

On their website, Chongryon claims that all their activities are based around the concept of Juche, the official state ideology of North Korea. Chongryon opposes the use of the Japanese word Kita-Chosen ("North Korea") as an abbreviation of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea. It refers to the country as Kyōwakoku ("The Republic") or Sokoku ("The Fatherland"). In 1972, Chongryon campaigned to get the Japanese media to stop referring to North Korea as Kita-Chosen. This effort was not successful, but as a compromise, most media companies agreed to refer to the DPRK with its full official title at least once in every article. By January 2003, this policy started to be abandoned by most newspapers, starting with Tokyo Shimbun, which announced that it would no longer write out the full name, followed by Asahi, Mainichi and Nikkei. Chongryon claims to be a representative body of overseas North Korean citizens living in Japan and rejects the notion that they are a mere ethnic minority. Out of the two main Korean organisations in Japan, Chongryon has been the more militant in advocating retention of Korean ethnic identity. It is generally opposed to Korean-Japanese integration into Japanese society; for example, it strongly encourages marriage within the Chrongryon community and has established a marriage counseling center in order to continue the "sacred work of preserving national identity and continuing the Korean lineage within the Korean-Japanese community". It also rejects Zainichi Koreans' right to vote or participate in Japanese regional elections, which it sees as an unacceptable attempt at assimilation into Japanese society. This is in contrast to Mindan, which is campaigning for wider Zainichi Korean participation in Japanese politics. ==Membership==

Chongryon members primarily consist of those who have retained their registration as Joseon nationals (Japanese: Chōsen-seki), instead of taking or being born with Japanese or South Korean nationality. Joseon nationality was a legal status that the Japanese government defined in the aftermath of World War II, when the government of the Korean peninsula was in an undetermined state. Prior to the end of World War II, Korea was administered by the Japanese government as being part of Japan, thus the legal nationality of Koreans, both in Japan and in Korea, was Japanese. As of 2022 there were around 25,000 people with the Joseon status, compared to over 409,000 registered South Korean nationals in Japan. Five other senior Chongryon officials are also members of the Supreme People's Assembly (North Korea's parliament). The PSIA reported that Chongryon had 70,000 members in 2016. ==Official activities==

Chongryon runs support and advisory services for members, such as legal and marriage advice and employment help. It is responsible for issuing North Korean passports. Chongryon-affiliated organisations operate businesses and banks to provide jobs, services and social networks for Zainichi Koreans outside of mainstream society. In 1990, the Chongryon banking system was capitalized to around $25 billion. In the 1970s and 1980s, these organizations constituted an important economic link between North Korea and Japan. The Chongryon-affiliated companies monitored the Tokyo Stock Exchange to enable the DPRK to sell its non-ferrous metals and other mineral products at the most advantageous prices, and purchased inexpensive Japanese consumer goods for re-export to the Comecon countries. Chongryon supporters are thought to control as much as one third of the pachinko industry in Japan. An important function of these enterprises is earning hard currency to be remitted to Pyongyang. These remittances have been estimated at between $600 million and $1.9 billion each year but are probably much lower. Chongryon publishes the Choson Sinbo newspaper as well as magazines and other publications. Websites run by Chongryon-affiliated organisations include the English-language ''People's Korea''. Chongryon also runs cultural activities and sports teams representing its members. Chongryon organises trips by members to North Korea, usually to visit relatives, as well as educational visits for students of Korean schools. They operated Man Gyong Bong 92, a passenger and cargo ferry which linked Niigata in Japan to Wonsan in North Korea, which served as the only direct link between the two countries, and is a subject of much controversy. The ferry was barred from entering the Japanese port for six months in response to North Korea's July 2006 missile tests and was banned indefinitely following the 2006 North Korean nuclear test due to suspicions of smuggling electronics used in missiles. The Congress, the highest legislative organ of Chongryon, has met every three years since 1961 to discuss its agenda, the election of key leaders and its budget. On 25 November 2020, Pak Ku-ho replaced Ho Jong-man as the head of Chongryon due to the latter's health complications from diabetes. The North Korean Chongryon-affiliated Fukushima Korean School sheltered 18 Japanese citizens from 18 March until the end of March. However, the Chongryon criticized the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan for not officially recognizing North Korea as one of the countries that sent humanitarian aid to the survivors of the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami. Following the death of North Korean leader Kim Jong-il in December 2011, Chongryon ordered members to keep a low profile. Pupils at its schools were barred from speaking to reporters, Japanese and Westerners alike, who in turn were turned away from facilities. In June 2012, the Japanese Supreme Court recognized Chongryon's role as North Korea's de facto embassy and authorized the seizure of Chongryon properties to pay off debts incurred. In 2013 a bid was approved on the property by Ekan Ikeguchi who was subsequently unable to secure funding. In November 2014, Marunaka Holdings Co. purchased the property for ¥2.21 billion with plans to evict the Chongryon. According to the Dong-A Ilbo, the Chongryon cooperated with Nike to make an advertisement addressing problems of Zainichi Koreans in 2020. On 28 May 2022, Kim Jong Un sent a 10,000-character letter to the members. Korean schools with photographs of Kim Il Sung and Kim Jong Il Chongryon operates 140 ethnic Korean schools (Chōsen gakkō or chosŏn hakkyo ) across Japan, including kindergartens and one university, Korea University, initially partly funded by the North Korean government. All lessons and all conversation in the school are conducted in Korean. They teach a strong pro-North Korean ideology and glorify the regimes of Kim Il Sung, Kim Jong Il and Kim Jong Un. They are not classified as regular schools under Japanese law as they do not follow the national curriculum. They are distinct from (한국학교, 韓國學校, 韓国学校) which are overseas South Korean schools (재외한국학교, 在外韓國學校, 在外韓国学校) in Japan, which receive approval from the South Korean government and incorporate the South Korean educational curriculum and regular Japanese curriculum. Their militant stance is increasingly coming under criticism from pupils, parents and the public alike. The number of pupils receiving ethnic education from Chongryon-affiliated schools has declined sharply in recent years, down to about 10,000 in 2009 from a high of 46,000 in the early 1970s, with many, if not most, Zainichi now opting to send their children to mainstream Japanese schools. , there were 12 Chōsen high schools with an enrollment of about 2,000 students. The schools were initially funded by North Korea, but this money has dried up. Today funding comes partly from local Japanese authorities, and many schools are facing financial difficulties. The Japanese government has refused Chongryon's requests that it fund Korean schools, citing Article 89 of the Japanese Constitution, according to which use of public funds for education by "schemes not under public control" is prohibited. Chongryon calls this an act of racial discrimination. Funding from local authorities usually takes place in the form of special benefits paid to the families of pupils, as opposed to paying the schools directly, to avoid a blatant breach of Article 89. Another issue is the high school equivalency examination, daiken, that qualifies those who have not graduated from a regular high school to apply for a place in a state university and take an entrance exam. Until recently, only those who had completed compulsory education (i.e., up to junior high school) were entitled to take the daiken; this meant pupils of ethnic schools had to do extra courses before being allowed to take the exam. In 1999 the requirement was amended so that anyone over a certain age was qualified. Campaigners were not satisfied because this still meant graduates of non-Japanese high schools had to take the daiken. In 2003, the Education Ministry removed the requirement to take the equivalency test from graduates of Chinese schools, Mindan-run Korean schools and international schools affiliated with Western nations and accredited by American and British organisations. However, this did not apply to graduates of Chongryon schools, saying it could not approve their curricula. The decision was left up to individual universities, 70% of which allowed Chongryon school graduates to apply directly. The North Korean government sponsored Chongryon schools for 50 years with "funds for educational support" and "scholarships" totaling around 46 billion yen. The Japanese government has proposed covering the tuition for all private high schools in Japan, with the exception of the Chongryon schools. As the Chongryon high schools are not being covered by the tuition support, there have been conflicts within the Chongryon whether to make amendments to school policies or keep them as is. Due to the issues described above, enrollment in schools run by Chongryon have declined sharply, and many of the children of Zainichi Koreans now choose to go to orthodox Japanese schools. The vast majority of Koreans in Japan attend regular Japanese schools or South Korean international schools. For example, in 2012 87% of Koreans in Osaka attend wholly Japanese schools which make no provisions for bilingual education. American student exchange program In January 2019, Korea University—Chongryon's only higher educational institution—hosted its first exchange program with US students from DePauw University. Held shortly before the February 2019 summit between Donald Trump and Kim Jong-un, the trip was widely reported in North Korean aligned media. Choson Sinbo ran several articles, one of which predicted warming and normalizing relations between the US and DPRK that was framed around the exchange. Jung Da Min of the South Korean Korea Times wrote that the visit "highlighted improving relations between the two countries on the government and non-government level". ==Tensions with Japan, legal issues and illegal activities==

For a long time, Chongryon enjoyed unofficial immunity from searches and investigations, partly out of respect for its role as North Korea's de facto embassy, and partly due to its power as an ethnic political pressure group. Acts which Chongryon officials are suspected of include illicit transfer of funds to North Korea, drug smuggling, The Chongryon has been described by the Washington Post as a "very effective sanctions-busting enterprise". Since allegations of Pyongyang's nuclear weapons programme first surfaced in the early 1990s, The Zaitokukai received criticism from a District Court for harassing Chongryon-affiliated schoolchildren. The Japanese authorities have recently started to crack down on Chongryon activities, moves usually criticised by Chongryon as acts of political suppression. The first raid on Chongryon facilities was in 1994, when a rally held in Osaka by Rescue the North Korean People (RENK), a Japanese citizens group set up to help refugees and demand democracy and human rights in North Korea, was attacked and broken up by a 100-strong mob. Police investigations revealed that the disruption was orchestrated by Chongryon. In 2000, a member of a Japanese criminal group was arrested after purchasing 250kg (550lbs) of amphetamines from Cho Gyu-son in the North Korean port of Wonsan. Cho was the former head of a Chongryon school in Shimonoseki before becoming the founder of what was ostensibly a trading company. He remains on the Japanese police's wanted list. In August 2003, the Yomiuri Shimbun reported that a North Korean defector confessed to smuggling drugs for North Korea into Japan through the Mangyongbong-92. He would deliver these drugs to a member of Chongryon, who would then deliver the drugs to the Japanese yakuza. This confession supported the U.S. State Department testimonies made in May of that year, that North Korea’s methamphetamine market in Japan provided the government with a profit of up to US $7 billion. In 2002, Shotaro Tochigi, deputy head of the Public Security Intelligence Agency told a session of the House of Representatives Financial Affairs Committee that the agency is investigating Chongryon for suspected illicit transfers of funds to the North. In 2003, a North Korean defector made a statement to the US Senate committee stating that more than 90% of the parts used by North Korea to construct its missiles were brought from Japan aboard Mangyongbong-92, a Chongryon-operated ship which is the only regular direct link between North Korea and Japan. In 2003, The Associated Press reported that Japanese authorities are preparing to charge a 72-year-old former senior member of Chongryon who was engaged in espionage activities for using false identity. It was claimed that espionage instructions were relayed to him by the captain of Mangyongbong 92. Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi told reporters "We must watch (the vessel) closely lest it be used for crime." In July 2003, the Tokyo Metropolitan Government reversed a decision made in 1972 by the socialist Tokyo Governor Ryokichi Minobe to exempt Chongryon from property tax. Chongryon refused to pay, resulting in seizure of three Chongryon properties. In March 2006, following a ruling by Fukuoka High Court, the Internal Affairs Ministry instructed prefectural governments across Japan to review any property tax exemptions on Chongryon properties. In May 2006, Chongryon and the pro-South Mindan agreed to reconcile, only for the agreement to break down the following month due to Mindan's distrust of Chongryon. North Korea's missile tests in July 2006 have deepened the divide, with Chongryon refusing to condemn the missile tests, instead only condemning the backlash. On 3 March 2007, thousands of Chongryon members staged a rally in Hibiya Park in protest against police investigations into the organisation and bullying of schoolchildren, which they called "political suppression and human rights abuses" by the Japanese authorities. The protesters, who numbered between 3000 (according to local media) and 7000 (according to Chongryon), staged a 2.9 km-long march wielding posters of the North Korean leader Kim Jong Il. Chongryon's number two, Nam Sung-u was quoted as saying "Japan's violations of human rights against the DPRK and Koreans in Japan cannot be allowed, no matter what". The Tokyo Metropolitan Government attempted to ban the protest fearing violence but they were overruled by a court ruling. Riot police scuffled with Japanese ultranationalist groups who had gathered in counterprotest resulting in one arrest. In June 2007, it was reported that Chongryon attempted to sell its main headquarters to Shigetake Ogata, (ex-head of the Public Security Intelligence Agency who now leads an investment firm) due to financial troubles and tensions with the Japanese government, however, creditors moved to block the sale in court and, according to North Korea's official news service article of 22 June 2007, the courts granted a Japanese collection agency the right to dispose of the property. In 2011, following the death of Kim Jong-il, the Japanese government refused to issue re-entry permits to stop Chongryon personnel in case they wanted to attend his funeral. In 2014, Japanese courts blocked a Mongolian company from buying the Chongryon building. In 2017, Korean scientists with strong ties to Chongryon, including Dr. Pyeon Cheol-ho, an assistant professor at Kyoto University's Research Reactor Institute, were accused of conducting espionage to aid the North Korean nuclear weapons program. They were eventually arrested by police and were identified as Satoshi Katsurada, a right-wing activist and Yoshinori Kawamura, an ex-yakuza member with the latter confirmed as the person responsible for firing a gun with five shots fired. Recent developments In 2019, Chongryon students protested in Tokyo when the Japanese government excluded Pyongyang-affiliated schools from a new government subsidy program, although local governments continue to fund Chongryon students. On 17 May 2019, it was announced that Japanese law enforcement will continue to monitor Chongryon activities due to its close ties with North Korea. On 9 July 2020, an anti-riot officer stationed near Chongryon killed himself while he was off duty with his own sidearm. In December 2023, the South Korean Ministry of Unification began investigating actor Kwon Hae-hyo, producer Cho Eun-seong and film director Kim Jee-woon for unauthorized contact with North Koreans after making a documentary highlighting discrimination in Chongryon schools. Article 9 of the Inter-Korean Exchange and Cooperation Act states that South Korean citizens must notify the Ministry of Unification in advance if they intend to contact a citizen of North Korea, even if abroad. This legislation especially applies to those seeking to make contact with people linked to Chosen schools that are affiliated with the Chongryon. However, if the person being contacted is a citizen of South Korea, no advance notification is required. Cho Eun-seong stated, "in the past 10 years, I have made several documentaries related to Koreans in Japan and this is the first time something like this has happened." The news of Seoul's investigations sparked controversy in the Zainichi community, with many fearing they could be suspected as a spy for simply speaking to someone North Korean. A restaurant owner, who is an ethnic Korean and third-generation immigrant in Japan, stated, "It’s perfectly natural for Koreans who have been in Japan for several generations to be on familiar terms with [North Koreans]. It’s certainly nothing to report to the authorities." In January 2026, a Japanese court ordered Chongryon to pay damages to North Koreans who were lured by their repatriation paradise program. On April 14, 2026, Pyongyang has provided Chongryon with $2 million to support education efforts. ==Chongryon affiliates==

• 3 Kindergartens • 19 Elementary schools • 34 Combined elementary and junior high schools • 5 Combined elementary, junior high, and high schools • 2 Junior high schools • 3 Combined junior and senior high schools • 4 High schools • 1 University – Korea University • 1 Academy – • 8 Banks • 1 Insurance company – Kumgang Insurance Company • 12 Art groups :* Chongryon Film Studio :* Korean Literature and Art Studio :* Korean Music Studio :* :* Tokyo Korean Song and Dance Ensemble :* Northern Kanto Song and Dance Ensemble :* Tokai Korean Song and Dance Ensemble :* Kyoto Korean Song and Dance Ensemble :* Osaka Korean Song and Dance Ensemble :* Hyogo Korean Song and Dance Ensemble :* Hiroshima Song and Dance Ensemble :* Kyoshyo Song and Dance Ensemble • Commercial enterprises :* Chugai Travel :* Korean—Japanese Export-Import Trading Company :* Donghae Commercial Company :* Korean Speciality Treading Company :* Chiyoda International Treading Company :* Kongtong Hungye Company :* Kyonghwa Commercial Company :* Runghung Merchant Company :* Near Ocean Transportation Company :* Haeyang Medicine Company • • Zainichi Korean Business and Industry League • Zainichi Korean Youth Business and Industry Association • Zainichi Korean Teachers' League • Korean Central Education Association in Japan • United Zainichi Korean Credit Association • • Zainichi Korean Comment Publisher Association • Zainichi Korean Social Scientist Association • Zainichi Korean Health Association • Zainichi Korean Literature and Art League • Korean Art Research Institute • Zainichi Korean Sport League • United Koreans in Japan football team • Korean Overseas Student League in Japan • Zainichi Korean Student Committee • Zainichi Korean Religious League • Zainichi Korean Buddhist Association • Zainichi Korean Historicism and Archaeology Association • Korean Democratic Woman Association in Japan • • Korean Reunification Comrades' Association in Japan • Korean Peace Upholding Committee in Japan • Choson Sinbo Publishing House • Haku Sopang • Korean Youth Society • Korean Issue Research Institute • Chongryon Unified Enterprise Propulsion Committee • Compatriots' Marriage Introducing Center ==See also==