Conrad Gessner was a Renaissance
polymath, a physician, philosopher,
encyclopaedist,
bibliographer,
philologist,
natural historian and illustrator. In 1537, at the age of 21, his publication of a Graecolatin dictionary led to his sponsors obtained for him the professorship of Greek at
the newly founded academy of
Lausanne (then belonging to
Bern). Here he had leisure to devote himself to scientific studies, especially botany, and earn money to further his medical studies. After three years of teaching at Lausanne, Gessner was able to travel to the medical school at the
University of Montpellier, where he received his doctoral degree (1541) from Basel. He then returned to Zurich to practice medicine, which he continued to do for the rest of his life. There he was also appointed to the post of lecturer of Aristotelean physics at the
Carolinum, the precursor of the
University of Zurich. After 1554 he became the
city physician (). In addition to his duties there, and apart from a few journeys to foreign countries, and annual summer botanical journeys in his native land, and illnesses, he was able to devote himself to research and writing. His expeditions frequently involved visits to mountainous country, below the
snow-line. Although primarily for purposes of botanical collection, he also extolled mountain climbing for the sake of exercise and enjoyment of the beauties of nature. In 1541 he prefixed to his treatise on milk and milk products,
Libellus de lacte et operibus lactariis a letter addressed to his friend Jacob Avienus (Vogel) of
Glarus on the wonders to be found among the mountains, declaring his love for them, and his firm resolve to climb at least one mountain every year, not only to collect flowers, but in order to exercise his body. In 1555 he issued his narrative
Descriptio Montis Fracti sive Montis Pilati of his excursion to the
Gnepfstein (1920 m), the lowest point in the
Pilatus chain. Gessner is credited with a number of the first descriptions of species in Europe, both animals such as the
brown rat (
Rattus norvegicus),
guinea pig (
Cavia porcellus) and
turkey (
Meleagris), as well as plants such as the tulip (
Tulipa gesneriana). He first saw a tulip in April 1559, growing in the garden of the magistrate Johann Heinrich Herwart at
Augsburg, and called it
Tulipa turcarum, the Turkish tulip.
Publications '' (wild strawberry), from Gessner's
Historia plantarum|alt=Drawing of wild strawberry in Historia platarum Gessner's first work was a Latin-Greek Dictionary, the
Lexicon Graeco-Latinum (1537), compiled during his studies in Basel. This was a revision of an original work by the Italian cleric, Varinus Phavorinus or Guarino of Favera (d. 1537),
Magnum ac perutile dictionarium (1523). Over his lifetime he was able to produce some 70 publications on many different subjects. His next major work was his unique
Bibliotheca (1545), a landmark in the history of bibliography, in which he set out to catalogue all the writers who had ever lived and their works. In addition to his monumental work on animal life, the (1551–1558), he amassed a very large collection of notes and
wood engravings of plants, but only published two botanical works in his lifetime,
Historia plantarum et vires (1541) and the
Catalogus plantarum (1542) in four languages. It was in the last decade of his life that he began to compile his major botanical work,
Historia plantarum. Although he died prior to its completion, his work was utilised by many other authors over the next two centuries, but was finally published in 1754. Not content with scientific works, Gessner was also active as a
linguist and bibliographer, putting forth in 1555 his book entitled
Mithridates. De differentiis linguarum [...], an account of about 130 known languages, with the ''
Lord's Prayer in twenty-two languages. He also produced edited works of a number of classical authors (see
Edited works''), including
Claudius Aelianus (1556) and
Marcus Aurelius (1559). A number of other works appeared after his death (
posthumously), some long after (
see Posthumous works). His work on insects was edited by various authors, including
Thomas Penny, until
Thomas Muffet brought it to publication as
Insectorum sive minimorum animalium theatrum (1634), finally appearing in English translation as
The Theatre of Insects in
Edward Topsell's
History of Four-Footed Beasts and Serpents (1658).
Bibliotheca universalis (1545–1549) In 1545, after four years of research, Gessner published his remarkable
Bibliotheca universalis, an exhaustive catalogue of all known works in Latin, Greek and Hebrew, of all writers who had ever lived, with the titles of their works, and brief annotations. The work, which included his own bio-bibliography, listed some three thousand authors alphabetically, and was the first modern bibliography published since the invention of printing. Through it, Gessner became known as the "father of bibliography." In all, about twelve thousand titles were included. A second part, a thematic index to the work,
Pandectarum sive partitionum universalium libri xxi, appeared in 1548. Although the title indicated that twenty one parts were intended, only nineteen books were included. Part 20, intended to include his medical work, was never finished and part 21, a theological encyclopaedia, was published separately in 1549.
Historia animalium (1551–1558) , , 1551|alt=Drawing of a porcupine in Historia amimalium Gessner's great
zoological work, , is a 4,500-page encyclopedia of animals that appeared in Zurich in 4 volumes between 1551 and 1558:
quadrupeds, amphibians, birds, and fishes. A fifth folio on snakes was issued in 1587. A German translation of the first 4 volumes titled
Thierbůch was published in Zurich in 1563. This book was considered to be the first modern zoological work. It built a bridge between ancient, medieval and modern science. In Gessner combines data from old sources, such as the Old Testament, Aristotle, Pliny, folklore, and medieval bestiaries, adding his own observations. He created a new, comprehensive description of the Animal Kingdom. This was the first attempt by anyone to describe many animals accurately. The book unlike many works of its time was illustrated with hand-colored woodcuts drawn from personal observations by Gessner and his colleagues. Even though he sought to distinguish observed facts from myths and popular errors and was known for his accurate depiction of many animals in , he also included many fictional animals such as the Unicorn and the Basilisk, which he had only heard about from medieval bestiaries. But when Gessner doubted the accuracy of the opinions he relayed in his own writings, or the validity of the illustrations he included, he clearly said so. Besides any plant or animal's potential advantage to people, Gessner was interested in learning about them because of the moral lessons they could teach and the divine truths they might tell. He went into as much detail about some unreal animals as he did about real ones. Later in 1556 he also combined real and fictional creatures in his edition of the works of
Claudius Aelianus. includes sketches for many well-known animals, and some fictional ones, including unicorns and mermaids. He accomplished many of his works in a large part due to the web of acquaintances he established with leading naturalists throughout Europe, who included
John Caius, English court physician to the
Tudors and second founder of
Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Not only did they send him their ideas, but also sent him plants, animals and gems. He returned the favor – and kept helpful specimens coming – by naming plants after correspondents and friends.
Historia plantarum (unfinished) Over his lifetime, Gessner amassed a considerable collection of plants and seeds and made extensive notes and
wood engravings. In the last decade of his life he began to compile his major botanical work,
Historia plantarum. although he died prior to its publication his materials were utilised by many subsequent authors for the next two hundred years. These included some 1,500 engravings of plants and their important flowers and seeds, most of which were original. The scale and scientific rigour of these were unusual for the time, and Gessner was a skilled artist, producing detailed drawings of specific plant parts that illustrated their characteristics, with extensive marginal notation discussing their growth form and habitation. Finally, the work was published in 1754.
Censorship There was extreme religious tension at the time that came out. Under
Pope Paul IV the
Pauline Index felt that the religious convictions of an author contaminated all his writings. Since Gessner was a Protestant his works were included in this index of prohibited books. Even though religious tensions were high, Gessner maintained friendships on both sides of the Catholic-Protestant divide. In fact, Catholic booksellers in Venice protested the Inquisition's blanket ban on Gessner's books, and some of his work was eventually allowed after it had been "cleaned" of its doctrinal errors.
List of selected publications :
see , • • • • • ,
see also Bibliotheca universalis • , see also
Bibliotheca universalis • • • • 1551
Quadrupedes vivipares • 1554
Quadrupedes ovipares • 1555
Avium natura • 1558
Piscium & aquatilium animantium natura • • • • • • ; •
Schatz Euonymi, 1582/1583 •
Der erste Theil, deß köstlichen unnd theuren Schatzes Euonymi Philiatri [...] Erstlich in Latein beschrieben durch Euonymum Philiatrum, und neuwlich verteutscht durch Joannem Rudolphum Landenberger zu Zürych, 1582 Band 1 •
Ander Theil des Schatzs Euonymi [...] Erstlich zusammen getragen, durch Herren Doctor Cunrat Geßner, Demnach von Caspar Wolffen der Artzneyen Doctor in Zürich in Latin beschriben und in Truck gefertiget, jetzund aber newlich von Johan. Jacobo Nüscheler Doctorn, in Teütsche Sprach vertolmetschet., 1583 Band 2 Band 2 • • • • • • ; • • ; • == Legacy ==