Fade (audio engineering)

Origins and examples Possibly the earliest example of a fade-out ending can be heard in Joseph Haydn's Symphony No. 45, nicknamed the "Farewell" Symphony on account of the fade-out ending. The symphony, which was written in 1772, used this device as a way of courteously asking Haydn's patron Prince Nikolaus Esterházy, to whom the symphony was dedicated, to allow the musicians to return home after a longer-than-expected stay. This was expressed by the players extinguishing their stand candles and leaving the stage one by one during the final adagio movement of the symphony, leaving only two muted violins playing. Esterházy appears to have understood the message, allowing the musicians to leave. Gustav Holst's "Neptune, the mystic", part of the orchestral suite The Planets written between 1914 and 1916, is another early example of music having a fade-out ending during performance. Holst stipulates that the women's choruses are "to be placed in an adjoining room, the door of which is to be left open until the last bar of the piece, when it is to be slowly and silently closed", and that the final bar (scored for choruses alone) is "to be repeated until the sound is lost in the distance". Although commonplace today, the effect bewitched audiences in the era before widespread recorded sound—after the initial 1918 run-through, Holst's daughter Imogen (in addition to watching the charwomen dancing in the aisles during "Jupiter") remarked that the ending was "unforgettable, with its hidden chorus of women's voices growing fainter and fainter ... until the imagination knew no difference between sound and silence". The technique of ending a spoken or musical recording by fading out the sound goes back to the earliest days of recording. In the era of mechanical (pre-electrical) recording, this could only be achieved by either moving the sound source away from the recording horn, or by gradually reducing the volume at which the performer(s) were singing, playing or speaking. With the advent of electrical recording, smooth and controllable fadeout effects could be easily achieved by simply reducing the input volume from the microphones using the fader on the mixing desk. The first experimental study on the effect of a fade-out showed that a version of a musical piece with fade-out in comparison to the same piece with a cold end prolonged the perceived duration by 2.4 seconds. This is called the "Pulse Continuity Phenomenon" and was measured by a tapping-along task to measure participants’ perception of pulsation. An 1894 78 rpm record called "The Spirit of '76" features a narrated musical vignette with martial fife-and-drum that gets louder as it nears the listener, and quieter as it moves away. There are early examples that appear to bear no obvious relationship to movement. One is "Barkin' Dog" (1919) by the Ted Lewis Jazz Band. Another contender is "America" (1918), a patriotic piece by the chorus of evangelist Billy Sunday. By the early 1930s, longer songs were being put on both sides of records, with the piece fading out at the end of side one and fading back in at the beginning of side two. Records at the time held only about two to five minutes of music per side. The segue allowed for longer songs (such as Count Basie's "Miss Thing"), symphonies and live concert recordings. However, shorter songs continued to use the fade-out for unclear reasons—for example, Fred Astaire's movie theme "Flying Down to Rio" (1933). Even using fade-out as a segue device does not seem obvious, though we certainly take it for granted today. It is possible that movies were an influence here. Fade-ins and fade-outs are often used as cinematic devices that begin and end scenes; film language that developed at the same time as these early recordings. The term fade-out itself is of cinematic origin, appearing in print around 1918. And jazz, a favorite of early records, was a popular subject of early movies too. The same could be said for radio productions. Within a single programme of a radio production, many different types of fade can be applied. When mixing from speech to music, there are a few ways that fade can be used. Here are three examples. • Straight: the introduction has become a musical link between the music/speech that follows; additionally, the first notes of the intro can be emphasized to make it pop out more. • Cutting the introduction: Since the first word of the vocals has to follow promptly after the cue light, it could be used to move the recording onward. "Suspicious Minds" by Elvis Presley, "Shine On Brightly" by Procol Harum, "Sunday Bloody Sunday" by John Lennon and Yoko Ono, "That Joke Isn't Funny Anymore" by The Smiths, "Thank You" by Led Zeppelin, More recently: "At the meta-song level, the prevalence of pre-taped sequences (for shops, pubs, parties, concert intervals, aircraft headsets) emphasizes the importance of flow. The effect on radio pop programme form [is] a stress on continuity achieved through the use of fades, voice-over links, twin-turntable mixing and connecting jingles." == Fade ==

A fade can be constructed so that the motion of the control (linear or rotary) from its start to end points affects the level of the signal in a different manner at different points in its travel. If there are no overlapping regions on the same track, regular fade (pre-fade / post-fade) should be used. A smooth fade is one that changes according to the logarithmic scale, as faders are logarithmic over much of their working range of 30-40 dB. however this is also something it can do. The perceived distance increase can be attributed to a diminishing level of timbral detail, not the result of a decreasing dynamic level. Shapes The shape of a regular fade and a crossfade can be shaped by an audio engineer. Shape implies that you can change the rate at which the level change occurs over the length of the fade. Different types of preset fades shapes include linear, logarithmic, exponential and S-curve. or an inverse-logarithmic ratio. This curve more closely matches human hearing, with finer control at lower levels, increasing dramatically past the 50% point. Since the perceived volume of a sound has a logarithmic relationship with its level, the logarithmic fade sounds consistent and smooth over the whole duration of the fade. This makes this curve useful for fading standard pieces of music. It is best used on a long fade-out since the fade has a perceived linear nature. Also, a fade-out sounds very neutral when incorporated to parts of music with natural ambience. In crossfades, this type of curve sounds very natural. When this curve is applied, the perceived volume of the fade's midpoint is at about 50% of the maximum – when the two sections are summed, the output volume is fairly constant. Exponential The exponential curve shape is in many ways the precise opposite of the logarithmic curve. The fade-in works as follows: it increases in volume slowly and then it shoots up very quickly at the end of the fade. The fade-out drops very quickly (from the maximum volume) and then declines slowly again over the duration of the fade. Simply stated, a linear fade could thus be seen as an exaggerated version of an exponential fade in terms of the apparent volume. Thus, the impression that would be gathered from an exponential curve's fade would sound as though the sound was rapidly accelerating toward the listener. Natural ambiance can also be repressed by using an exponential fade-out. A crossfade, in the exponential shape, will have a perceivable dip in the middle, which is very undesirable in music and vocals. This depends largely on the length of the crossfade; a long crossfade on ambient sounds can sound perfectly satisfactory (the dip can add a little breath to the music). Exponential crossfades (or a curve with a similar shape) have a smaller drop in the middle of the fade. S-curve The S-curve shape has a mixture of qualities from the previously mentioned curves. The level of the sound is 50% at the midpoint, but before and after the midpoint, the shape is not linear. There are also two types of S-curves. The traditional S-curve fade-in has attributes of the exponential curve at the beginning; from the midpoint to the end, it is more logarithmic in nature. A traditional S-curve fade-out is logarithmic from the beginning up to the midpoint, then its attributes are based on the exponential curve from the midpoint to the end. This is true for the situation in reverse as well (for both fade-in and fade-out). Crossfading with S-curves diminishes the amount of time that both sounds are playing simultaneously. This ensures that the edits sound like a direct cut when the two edits meet, adding an extra smoothness to the edited regions. The second type of S-curve is more applicable to longer crossfades, as both signals are audible for as long as possible. There is a short period at the start of each of the crossfades where the outgoing sound drops toward 50% quickly (with the incoming sound rising just as fast to 50%). This acceleration of sound slows, and both sounds will appear as if they are at the same level for most of the crossfade before the changeover happens. The level after applying an S-curve fade-in can be modeled as follows: :L(t) = L_0 \sin^2\left(\frac{\pi}{2} \times \frac{t - t_s}{t_e - t_s}\right). Similarly, the level after applying an S-curve fade-out can be modeled as follows: :L(t) = L_0 \cos^2\left(\frac{\pi}{2} \times \frac{t - t_s}{t_e - t_s}\right). Adjustments Digital audio workstations (DAWs) provide the ability to change the shape of logarithmic, exponential, and S-curve fades and crossfades. Changing the shape of a logarithmic fade will change how soon the sound will rise above 50%, and then how long it takes for the end of the fade-out to drop below 50% once again. With exponential fades, the shape change will affect the shape in reverse, to the shape of the logarithmic fade. In the S-curve's traditional form, the shape determines how quickly the change can occur and determines the time it takes for both the sounds to get to a nearly equal level. Appropriate fade-in time for a gentle linear fade can be around 500 ms; for the fade-out 500 ms would also be effective. To clear up plosive sounds created through vocals, a quick fade-in with a very short time of around 10 ms can be used. == Crossfading ==

in Rainbow Warehouse in Birmingham (Video with close-up photography at the DJ mixer, though without sound). From 1:36, heavy use of the crossfader can be seen. A crossfader on a DJ mixer essentially functions like two faders connected side-by-side, but in opposite directions. A crossfader is typically mounted horizontally, so that the DJ can slide the fader from the extreme left (this provides 100% of sound source A) to the extreme right (this provides 100% of sound source B), move the fader to the middle (this is a 50/50 mix of sources A and B), or adjust the fader to any point in between. It allows a DJ to fade one source out while fading another source in at the same time. The technique of crossfading is also used in audio engineering as a mixing technique, particularly with instrumental solos. A mix engineer will often record two or more takes of a vocal or instrumental part and create a final version which is a composite of the best passages of these takes by crossfading between takes. There are many software applications that implement crossfades, for instance, burning-software for the recording of audio-CDs and most DAWs have this function and is available on samplers. The purpose of a cross-fade is to create a smooth changeover between two pieces of audio. The samples represent the timbre of the sampled instrument at loud and soft levels. they typically had separate faders for each channel. Grandmaster Flash is often credited with the invention of the first crossfader by sourcing parts from a junkyard in the Bronx. It was initially an on/off toggle switch from an old microphone that he transformed into a left/right switch which allowed him to switch from one turntable to another, thereby avoiding a break in the music. However, the earliest documented commercial example was designed by Richard Wadman, one of the founders of the British company Citronic. The model SMP101 mixer, made about 1977, had a crossfader that doubled as a L/R balance control or a crossfade between two inputs. Crossfade shapes When crossfading two signals, the two fade curves can employ any of the shapes listed above (see #Shapes), such as linear, exponential, S-curve, etc. When the goal is to have the perceived loudness of the combined mix signal stay fairly constant across the full range of the crossfade, special equal power shapes must be used. Equal power shapes are based on audio power principles, particularly the fact that the power of an audio signal is proportional to the square of the amplitude. Many equal power shapes have the property that the midpoint of the fade provides an amplitude multiplier of 0.707 (square root of one half) for both signals. A variety of equal power shapes are available, and the optimal shape will generally depend on the amount of correlation between the two signals. An example pair of curves that keep power equal across the mix are \sqrt{m} and \sqrt{1 - m}, where m is the crossfade position and ranges from 0 to 1. Equal power shapes typically have the sum of their amplitude (in the middle of the crossfade) exceeding the nominal maximum amplitude (1.0), which may produce clipping in some circumstances. If that is a concern, then equal gain shapes should be used that are designed so the two curves always sum to 1. In the digital signal processing realm, the term power curve is often used to designate crossfade shapes, particularly for equal power shapes. == Fader == A fader is any device used for fading, especially when it is a knob or button that slides along a track or slot. It is principally a variable resistance or potentiometer. A contact can move from one end to another. As this movement takes place, the resistance of the circuit can either increase or decrease. At one end the resistance of the scale is at 0 and at the other side, it is infinite. "The law of the fader is near-logarithmic over much of its range, which means that a scale of decibels can be made linear (or close to it) over a working range of perhaps 60 dB. If the resistance were to increase according to the same law beyond this, it would be twice as long before reaching a point where the signal is negligible. But the range below -50 dB is of little practical use, so here the rate of fade increases rapidly to the final cut-off". The console's computer will update the console's controls on playback. This type of fader level adjustment is also called ‘riding’ the fader. Types Many DJ equipment manufacturers offer different mixers for different purposes, with different fader styles, e.g., "scratching", beatmixing, and cut mixing. High-priced mixers often have crossfade curve switches allowing the DJ to select the type of crossfade necessary. Experienced DJs are also able to crossfade between tracks using the channel faders. == Pre-fader, post-fader ==

On a mixer with auxiliary send mixes, the send mixes are configured pre-fader or post-fader. If a send mix is configured pre-fader, then changes to the main channel strip fader do not affect the send mix. In live sound reinforcement, this is useful for stage monitor mixes where changes in the Front of House channel levels would distract the musicians. In recording and post production, configuring a send to be pre-fader allows the amount of audio sent to the aux bus to remain unaffected by the individual track fader, thus not disturbing the stability of the feed that is being sent to the musicians. If a send mix is configured post-fader, then the level sent to the send mix follows changes to the main channel strip fader. This is useful for reverberation and other signal processor effects. An example of this is when an engineer would like to add some delay to the vocals – the fader can thus be used to adjust the amount of delay added. == Pre-fader listen (PFL), after-fader listen (AFL) ==

mixing console, next to the fader of each channel. Pre-fader listen and After-fader listen are functions found on a primary monitor function. On an analogue mixing console, the PFL (pre-fader listen) switch routes the incoming signal of a channel to a PFL bus. This bus is sent to the monitor mix and/or the headphones mix, allowing for monitoring an incoming signal before it is sent to the main output. When the mixer is equipped with VU meters, the PFL allows to visually monitor an audio source without hearing it and adjust its input gain. This pre-fade listen is valuable since it allows one to listen through headphones in order to hear what the pre-faded part sounds like, while the studio loudspeaker is being used to monitor the rest of the program. Pre-fade listen can also be used for talkback as well as to listen to channels before they have been faded. After-fade listen only gets its information later. The choice of listen or level will depend on the user's interest: either with the quality and/or content of the signal or with the signal's level. PFL takes place just before the fader and has a joint channel and monitoring function. PFL sends the channel's signal path to the pre-fade bus. The bus is picked up in the monitor module and made accessible as a substitute signal that is sent to the mixer output. Automatic PFL has been made available, almost universally, and no longer needs to be selected beforehand. Pre-fade listen can also be incorporated in radio stations and serves as a vital tool. This function allows the radio presenter to listen to the source before it is faded on air; allowing the presenter to check the source's incoming level and make sure it is accurate. It is also valuable since live radio broadcasts can fall apart without it as they will not be able to monitor the sound. After-fader listen is not as useful in live programs. == See also ==