David W. Johnson (scholar)

He grew up in a family of seven children, living for several years on a family farm. Currently, he lives in Minneapolis, Minnesota. He graduated from Ball State University in 1962, received a master's degree and a doctoral degree in social psychology from Teachers College, Columbia University in 1964 and 1966 respectively, with Morton Deutsch as his dissertation advisor. ==Career==

Since 1966 he has worked at the University of Minnesota in the Department of Educational Psychology, becoming a full professor in 1973. His brother Roger Johnson came to the University of Minnesota in 1969 and together they founded the Cooperative Learning Center. ==Social interdependence theory, cooperation, and appropriate competition==

Johnson began his work on social interdependence theory and the appropriate use of cooperative, competitive, and individualistic efforts in the mid-1960s. At that time, elementary, secondary, and university teaching was dominated by competitive and individualistic learning. Social Darwinism, with its premise that students must be taught to survive in a "dog-eat-dog" world dominated educational thought, although it was being challenged by individualistic learning largely based on B. F. Skinner's work on programmed learning and behavioral modification. In the 60's and 70's, while cooperative learning was generally ignored by educators, Johnson challenged the prevailing competitive and individualistic practices by presenting the theory and research on cooperative, competitive, and individualistic learning, creating operational procedures for cooperative learning and appropriate competition, and implementing cooperative learning in schools and universities. Research review Johnson's first published review of the research on cooperation and competition appeared in 1970 in his book, The Social Psychology of Education. This was followed by a more comprehensive review, with his brother Roger, published in the Review of Educational Research in 1974 and the editing of a special issue of the Journal of Research and Development in Education in 1978. In 1981 and 1983 he pioneered the use of meta-analysis in publishing reviews of the impact of cooperative, competitive, and individualistic on achievement/productivity and on interpersonal attraction. In 1989 he and his brother published a book, Cooperation and Competition: Theory and Research, which contained a series of meta-analyses (currently being revised with updates)on many of the dependent variables relevant to Social Interdependence Theory. Extension of theory Social interdependence theory was originally formulated by Morton Deutsch in 1949. While Deutsch created the basic structure of theory, many of its implications were left unexplored and several of its assumptions were unchallenged. In his research, Johnson explicated the conditions underlying effective cooperation and constructive competition. In the 1989 meta-analysis book, and in 2005 he and his brother published an update of the theory in Psychological Monographs Program of research Over the past 40 years, in collaboration with his brother and colleagues, Johnson has published over 100 research studies on the impact of cooperative, competitive, and individualistic efforts on a wide variety of outcomes, higher-level reasoning, motivation, perspective-taking, social development, social skills, interpersonal attraction (among relatively homogeneous individuals, individuals from different ethnic and cultural groups, and handicapped and nonhandicapped individuals), social support, self-esteem, and psychological health. He conducted a program of research to identify the factors that mediate the impact of cooperation, such as positive interdependence, individual accountability, promotive interaction, social skills, and group processing. In addition, he has conducted a series of studies identifying the conditions under which competition results in constructive outcomes. Implementation In the mid-1960s Johnson began training educators in the use of cooperative, competitive, and individualistic learning. Cooperation in the Classroom (first published in 1984 and now in its eighth edition), and Leading the Cooperative School (first published in 1989 and now in its second edition). Overall, he has written 33 other books for teachers, professors, and administrators on how to use cooperative learning. Johnson's books and training materials have provided guidance for using cooperation to educators all over the world. Cooperative Learning Centers have been established in many countries around the world, as the Hong Kong Cooperative Learning Center, which had Johnson conduct a seven-year project to train faculty from all seven Hong Kong universities and many mainland universities in the use of cooperative learning. Cooperative Learning Centers can be found in Shanghai, Japan, Cyprus, Norway, Italy, and at multiple places in the United States and Canada. ==Constructive controversy==

Johnson began documenting the essential role of intellectual conflict in effective instruction and decision making in the 1960s Research reviews were published in 1979, 1989, 1995, 2000, and 2003. To validate and extend the theory, Johnson (with his colleagues and brother) has published over 15 research studies in constructive controversy. was published in 1987. Constructive Controversy: Intellectual Challenge in the Classroom was published in 1991 and is now in its fourth edition. ==Conflict resolution and peer mediation==

In an effort to ensure conflicts of interests are managed constructively, in the 1960s Johnson began a program of teaching elementary, secondary, and university students to be "peacemakers" in the sense of knowing how to engage in integrative negotiations and mediate peer conflicts. The Teaching Students To Be Peacemakers program consists of (a) teaching students how conflicts are potentially constructive, (b) the strategies for managing conflicts, (c) how to engage in integrative negotiations, and (d) how to mediate conflicts among peers. All students in a class or school are trained, and then each takes his or her turn at being a peer mediator. While there are many conflict resolution and peer mediation training programs, what makes this one unique is that it is based on the theory concerning constructive conflict and has been more thoroughly researched. Research review More specifically, the reviews of the literature related to the conflict resolution and peer mediation program began in 1971 with the summary of Johnson's research on perspective-taking in conflict situations, following by reviews on communication in conflicts in 1973 and 1974 and numerous other subsequent reviews. In 1996 he published the first comprehensive review of the research on school conflict resolution and peer mediation programs in the Review of Educational Research Extension of theory Johnson's theorizing on integrative negotiations began in 1966 with his dissertation on perspective taking in integrative and distributive conflict situations. His theory of constructive conflict was first published in 1970 in his book, The Social Psychology of Education, Joining Together,) The theory was substantially revised in 1987 with the publication of Creative Conflict in 1991. Program of research Johnson's research efforts began in the 1960s. Overall, he has published over 25 studies on integrative negotiations, conflict resolution, and peer mediation. ==Social skills and experiential learning==

Johnson has published two of the classic books in the field of Experiential Learning (Reaching Out: Interpersonal Effectiveness and Self-Actualization and Joining Together: Group Theory and Group Skills ). The books utilize experiential learning to teach interpersonal and small group skills. These books present an overall theoretical framework for defining interpersonal and small group skills, systematic reviews of the research on the skills, and numerous experiential exercises to teach them. These books have been used all over the world and are now in their eleventh editions. Many of the research studies on cooperation and conflict resolution, furthermore focus on social skills and the implementation of these programs involves the implementation of the teaching of social skills. Among the training programs he has conducted, Johnson trained educators how to teach students social skills at a United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization Conference in Beirut, Lebanon, in May 2000. ==Peace education==

Johnson joined SANE in the early 1960s and has been active in peace movements since that time. He has edited two special issues of Journals on Peace Education and written eight articles and book chapters on the issue. He has been a major speaker at several international conferences (Australia, Cyprus) on peace education and reconciliation. Cooperative learning is being used in Armenia as a basic procedure for teaching elementary and secondary students the skills necessary to be a citizen in a democracy. Johnson has helped train teachers and administrators in Armenia to implement cooperative learning as part of a democratic citizenship program. He has also helped a United Nations Program in Turkey to implement cooperative learning as part of a training program to reduce violence towards women in that country. Constructive controversy is being used to teach elementary and secondary students how to be citizens in a democracy in such countries as Azerbaijan, Czech Republic, and Lithuania. ==Psychotherapy==

Johnson is a practicing psychotherapist who had a part-time psychotherapy practice from 1973 to 1987at the Nicollet Clinic in Minneapolis. During that time he conducted a series of studies on therapist behavior and wrote three book chapters on psychotherapy methods. He is a licensed consulting psychologist in Minnesota and is listed in the National Register of Health Service Providers in Psychology. Since 1966, Johnson has been a member of the National Training Laboratories Institute for Applied Behavioral Science. ==Civil Rights Movement==

In 1960, Johnson began conducting research on reducing prejudice and became involved in the national civil rights movement. He was awarded the Russell Bull Scholarship Award (given by the United Packinghouse, Food, and Allied Workers) for the most outstanding work done in civil rights in the United States in 1962 (Martin Luther King Jr. chaired the selection committee). During the summer of 1963, he led a day camp for children in the Bedford–Stuyvesant area of Brooklyn, New York, and a youth center for the Brooklyn Bishops (a street gang). In 1964, he helped plan and conduct the training program for the Mississippi Freedom Summer sponsored by the Mississippi Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC). From 1963 to 1965, Johnson taught African American history at Freedom Schools in New York City, sponsored by the Harlem Parents Committee, and conducted two studies on the impact of learning Black history on African American children. At the same time, he worked with the Northern Student Movement, among other things organizing rent strikes in Harlem. He trained group leaders in the use of guided group interaction for juvenile delinquents in the Essex Fields Program in New Jersey. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, Johnson worked with teenage runaways and teenagers with drug problems (through The Bridge and the Walk In Counseling Center in Minneapolis). He has been active in politics, serving as Treasurer for the 2nd Ward in Minneapolis in the late 1960s and early 1970s, and ran for the Minnesota State Legislature twice in the 1990s. ==Honors and awards==

Johnson is a past editor of the American Educational Research Journal (1981-1983). In 2011 he received the Alfred M. Wellner Distinguished Career Psychologist Award from the National Register of Health Service Providers in Psychology. In 2010 Johnson received the Jeffrey Rubin Theory To Practice Award, awarded by the International Association for Conflict Management and the Program on Negotiation at the Harvard Law School. In 2008 Johnson received the American Educational Research Association's Distinguished Contributions to Research in Education Award. David Johnson, with his brother Roger, was the recipient of the 2007 Brock International Prize in Education. In 2003 Johnson received the American Psychological Association's Distinguished Contributions of Applications of Psychology to Education and Training Award. In 1981 David Johnson, with his brother Roger and Geoffrey Maruyama, received the Gordon Allport Intergroup Relations Award, presented by the Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues (Division 9 of the APA). In 2004 David Johnson, with his brother Roger, received the Distinguished Scholar Award for Outstanding Research on Democratic Citizenship from the Democratic Citizenship in Education Special Interest Group of the American Educational Research Association. In 2001 they received the Distinguished Scholar Award from the Stress and Coping Special Interest Group of the American Educational Research Association. In 1996 they received the Award For Outstanding Research Contribution To Cooperative Learning from the Special Interest Group, Cooperative Learning: Theory, Research, and Practice of the American Educational Research Association. In 2010 they received the Promise Award given by the Conflict Resolution and Violence Prevention Special Interest Group of the American Educational Research Association. Also in 2010 David received the Jeffrey-Rubin Theory to Practice Award from the International Association for Conflict Management and the Program on Negotiation at the Harvard Law School. In 2011 David received the Alfred M. Wellner Distinguished Career Psychologist Award given by the National Register of Health Service Providers in Psychology. In 2013 David received the Lifetime Achievement Award of Division G (Social Context of Education) of the American Education Research Association. In 2014 David was given the Distinguished Alumni Award, Teachers College, Columbia University. In 2015 David was given the Award for Life Time Contributions to Thinking Education, by the International Conference on Thinking (ICOT). Also in 2015 David and Roger were given the Lifetime Achievement Award by the International Association for the Study of Cooperation. In 2016 David was given the Gold Metal for Life Achievement in the Application of Psychology by the American Psychological Foundation. ==References==