Origins The Oirats were originally from the area of
Tuva during the early 13th century. Their leader,
Qutuqa Beki, submitted to
Genghis Khan in 1208, and his house intermarried with all four branches of the Genghisid line. During the
Toluid Civil War, the
Four Oirat (
Choros,
Torghut,
Dörbet, and
Khoid) sided with
Ariq Böke and therefore never accepted
Kublaid rule. After the
Yuan dynasty's collapse, the Oirats supported the Ariq Bökid
Jorightu Khan Yesüder to seize the
Northern Yuan throne. The Oirats held sway over the Northern Yuan khans until the death of
Esen Taishi in 1455, after which they migrated west due to Khalkha Mongol aggression. In 1486, the Oirats became embroiled in a succession dispute, which gave
Dayan Khan the opportunity to attack them. In the latter half of the 16th century, the Oirats lost more territory to the
Tumed. However, the Oirats began to resist Northern Yuan rule. In which Eselvei Khya of the Khoid battled the armies of
Ordos Mongols and the
Chahars. Later, Kharkhul rebelled against the Khalkhas and repelled them. The Oirats soon started an
independence war against the Khalkhas and the Kazakhs. They defeated a Khalkha–Kazakh coalition and raided deep into
Sighnaq in 1604. In 1608, the Oirats defeated another Kazakh force and repelled an invading Khalkha army. From 1609–1616, the Oirats devastated the Kazakhs and the Kyrgyz, subjugating them in the process. In 1620, the leaders of the Choros and Torghut Oirats,
Khara Khula and Mergen Temene, attacked
Ubashi Khong Tayiji, and the first
Altan Khan of the Khalkha. They were defeated, and Khara Khula lost his wife and children to the enemy. An all-out war between Ubashi Khong Tayiji and the Oirats lasted until 1623 when Ubashi Khong Tayiji was killed, and the Oirats declared independence at the
Battle of Irtysh River. In 1625, a conflict erupted between the
Khoshut chief Chokhur and his uterine brother Baibaghas over inheritance issues. Baibaghas was killed in the fight. However, his younger brothers;
Güshi Khan and Kondolon Ubashi took up the fight and pursued Chöükür from the
Ishim River to the
Tobol River, attacking and killing his tribal followers in 1630. The infighting among the Oirats caused the Torghut chief
Kho Orluk to migrate westwards until they came into conflict with the
Nogai Horde, which they destroyed. The Torghuts founded the
Kalmyk Khanate but still stayed in contact with the Oirats in the east. Every time a great assembly was called, they sent representatives to attend. In 1632, the
Gelug sect in
Qinghai was being repressed by the Khalkha
Choghtu Khong Tayiji, so they invited Güshi Khan to come and deal with him. In 1636, Güshi led 10,000 Oirats in an invasion of Qinghai, which resulted in the
defeat of a 30,000-strong enemy army and the death of Choghtu in 1637. He then entered Central Tibet, where he received from the
5th Dalai Lama the title of the Dharma King Who Upholds the Religion. He then claimed the title of
Khan, the first non-
Genghisid Mongol to do so, and summoned the Oirats to completely conquer Tibet, creating the
Khoshut Khanate. Among those involved was Kharkhul's son,
Erdeni Batur, who was granted the title of Khong Tayiji, married the khan's daughter Amin Dara, and was sent back to establish the
Dzungar Khanate on the upper
Emil River south of the
Tarbagatai Mountains.
Erdeni Batur's rule The Dzungars invaded the
Kazakh Khanate in 1635, capturing their khan,
Jangir in the process. Erdeni Batur later continued his invasions in 1640, 1643 and 1646, further devastating the Kazakh Khanate and subjugating their people. He also established
Ghulja as the capital city, naming it Khobak Sari in which he built monastaries, and buildings to populate it. He also established relations with the
Tsardom of Russia, granting them rights to salt mines and trade. In which allowed the Russians to settle and create outposts, as well as a prosperous economy between the two nations. His rule ended in 1653, at his death in the same year. Before this he had also requested the Khoshut Khanate to aid him in their war against the Kazakhs, which they sent Galdamba to defeat Jangir at Battle of Turkistan and Bukharans at
Battle of the Chu and Talas river. Which consolidated the border of the Dzungar Khanate in the west from
Talas River to
Ayagöz river.
Succession dispute (1653–1677) '', ) from
Ili and other regions, and his wife.
Huang Qing Zhigong Tu, 1769. In 1653,
Sengge succeeded his father Batur, but he faced dissent from his half-brothers. With the support of
Ochirtu Khan of the Khoshut, this strife ended with Sengge's victory in 1661. In 1667, he captured
Erinchin Lobsang Tayiji, the third and last Altan Khan. However, he himself was assassinated by his half-brothers Chechen Tayiji and Zotov in a
coup in 1670. Sengge's younger brother
Galdan Boshugtu Khan had been residing in Tibet at the time. Upon his birth in 1644, he was recognized as the reincarnation of a Tibetan
lama who had died the previous year. In 1656, he left for Tibet, where he received education from
Lobsang Chökyi Gyaltsen, 4th Panchen Lama and the 5th Dalai Lama. Upon learning of his brother's death, he immediately returned from Tibet and took revenge on Chechen. In 1671, The Dalai Lama bestowed the title of Khan on Galdan. In 1676, Galdan defeated Chechen near
Sayram Lake. Galdan then married Sengge's wife,
Anu-Dara, the granddaughter of
Ochirtu Khan, he came into conflict with his grandfather-in-law. Fearing Galdan's popularity, Ochirtu supported his uncle and rival Chokhur Ubashi, who refused to recognize Galdan's title. The victory over Ochirtu in 1677 resulted in Galdan's domination of the Oirats. In the next year, the Dalai Lama gave the highest title of Boshogtu Khan to him.
Conquest of the Yarkent Khanate (1678–1680) From the late 16th century onward, the
Yarkent Khanate fell under the influence of the
Khojas. The Khojas were
Naqshbandi Sufis who claimed descent from the prophet
Muhammad or from the
Rashidun caliphs. By the reign of
Sultan Said Khan in the early 16th century, the Khojas already had a strong influence in court and over the khan. In 1533, an especially influential Khoja named Makhdum-i Azam arrived in Kashgar, where he settled and had two sons. These two sons hated each other, and they passed down their mutual hatred to their children. The two lineages came to dominate large parts of the khanate, splitting it between two factions: the Aq Taghliq (White Mountain) in Kashgar and the Qara Taghliq (Black Mountain) in Yarkand. Yulbars patronized the Aq Taghliqs and suppressed the Qara Taghliqs, which caused much resentment and resulted in his assassination in 1670. He was succeeded by his son, who ruled for only a brief period before
Ismail Khan was enthroned. Ismail reversed the power struggle between the two Muslim factions and drove out the Aq Taghliq leader,
Afaq Khoja. Afaq fled to
Tibet, where the
5th Dalai Lama aided him in enlisting the help of
Galdan Boshugtu Khan. In 1679, Galdan led 30,000 men to
Turpan and
Hami and soon in 1680, Galdan led 120,000 men into the Yarkent Khanate and conquered it. They were aided by the Aq Taghliqs and Hami and Turpan, which had already submitted to the Dzungars. Ismail's son, Babak Sultan, died in the resistance against the battle for Kashgar. The general Iwaz Beg died in the defense of Yarkand. The Dzungars defeated the Moghul forces without much difficulty and took Ismail and his family prisoner. Galdan installed
Abd ar-Rashid Khan II, son of Babak, as puppet khan.
Galdan's Kazakh war (1681–1684) In 1681, the invasion by Galdan Boshugtu Khan started with Galdan's forces' attacking Jetisu and South Kazakhstan, where Galdan failed to take
Sayram in 1681 and 1683. In 1684, the Dzungars seized Sayram, Tashkent, and more. After that Galdan subjugated the Black Kyrgyz and ravaged the
Fergana Valley. The Dzungars established dominion over the
Baraba Tatars and extracted yasaq (tribute) from them. Converting to
Orthodox Christianity and becoming Russian subjects was a tactic by the Baraba Tatars to find an excuse not to pay yasaq to the Dzungars. He also recaptured the region of Jetisu, which were lost to the Kazakhs during the Succession dispute in 1670.
Khalkha war (1687–1688) 's invasion of Khalkha in 1688 The Oirats had established peace with the
Khalkha Mongols since
Ligdan Khan died in 1634, and the Khalkhas were preoccupied with the rise of the
Qing dynasty. However, when the Jasaghtu Khan Shira lost part of his subjects to the
Tüsheet Khan Chikhundorj, Galdan moved his
orda near the
Altai Mountains to prepare an attack. Chikhundorj attacked the right wing of the Khalkhas and killed Shira in 1687. In 1688, Galdan dispatched troops under his younger brother Dorji-jav against Chikhundorj, but they were eventually defeated. Dorji-jav was killed in battle. Chikhundorj then murdered Degdeehei Mergen Ahai of the Jasaghtu Khan, who was on the way to Galdan. To avenge the death of his brother, Galdan established friendly relations with the Russians, who were already at war with Chikhundorj over territories near
Lake Baikal. Armed with Russian firearms, Galdan led 30,000 Dzungar troops into Khalkha Mongolia in 1688 and defeated Chikhundorj in three days. The
Siberian Cossacks, meanwhile, attacked and defeated a Khalkha army of 10,000 near Lake Baikal. After two bloody battles with the Dzungars near
Erdene Zuu Monastery and Tomor, Chakhundorji and his brother
Jebtsundamba Khutuktu Zanabazar fled across the
Gobi Desert to the Qing dynasty and submitted to the
Kangxi Emperor. Leading to The First
Dzungar-Qing War.
First Qing war (1690–1696) Late in the summer of 1690, Galdan crossed the
Kherlen River with a force of 20,000 and engaged a
Qing army at
Battle of Ulan Butung 350 kilometers north of
Beijing near the western headwaters of the
Liao River. Galdan was forced to retreat and escaped destruction because the Qing army did not have the supplies or ability to pursue him. In 1696, the
Kangxi Emperor led 100,000 troops into
Mongolia. Galdan fled from the Kherlen only to be caught by another Qing army attacking from the west. He was defeated in the ensuing
Battle of Jao Modo near the upper
Tuul River. Galdan's wife,
Anu, was killed, and the Qing army captured 20,000 cattle and 40,000 sheep. Galdan fled with a small handful of followers. In 1697, he died in the Altai Mountains near
Khovd on 4 April. Back in Dzungaria, his nephew
Tsewang Rabtan, who had revolted in 1689, was already in control as of 1691.
Chagatai rebellion (1693–1705) Galdan installed
Abd ar-Rashid Khan II, son of Babak, as puppet khan in the
Yarkent Khanate. The new khan forced
Afaq Khoja to flee again, but Abd ar-Rashid's reign was also ended unceremoniously two years later when riots erupted in Yarkand. He was replaced by his brother Muhammad Imin Khan. Muhammad sought help from the
Qing dynasty,
Khanate of Bukhara, and the
Mughal Empire in combating the Dzungars. In 1693, Muhammad successfully attacked the Dzungar Khanate, taking 30,000 captives. Unfortunately, Afaq Khoja reappeared and overthrew Muhammad in a revolt led by his followers. Afaq's son, Yahiya Khoja, was enthroned, but his reign was cut short in 1695 when both he and his father were killed while suppressing local rebellions. In 1696,
Akbash Khan was placed on the throne, but the
begs of Kashgar refused to recognize him, and instead allied with the
Kyrgyz to attack Yarkand, taking Akbash prisoner. The begs of Yarkand went to the Dzungars, who sent troops and ousted the Kyrgyz in 1705. The Dzungars installed a non-Chagatai ruler, Mirza Alim Shah Beg, thereby ending the rule of Chagatai khans forever. Abdullah Tarkhan Beg of
Hami also rebelled in 1696 and defected to the
Qing dynasty. In 1698, Qing troops were stationed in Hami.
Tsewang Rabtan's campaigns against the Kazakhs In 1698, Galdan's successor Tsewang Rabtan reached
Lake Tengiz and
Turkistan, and the Dzungars controlled
Jetisu and
Tashkent until 1745. The Dzungars' war on the Kazakhs pushed them into seeking aid from Russia. They further invaded the Kazakhs in 1708, but were soon repelled by the Kazakhs in 1711–1712. However, they managed to counterattack with Tsewang Rabtan sending his two sons, Lobsangsür and
Galdan Tseren, recovering their lost territories. Having achieved short-term foreign policy stability on the southern and eastern borders of Dzungaria, Tsavan-Rabdan sent his troops to the Kazakh steppes in 1716. The Oirat army under the command of Tseren Dondook defeated the Kazakh militia and captured a significant number of prisoners. In the same year, Kazakh troops attacked the nomads of the Choros on the Ili River, capturing Lieutenant Markel Trubnikov. The Kazakhs fought against the Dzungar Khanate in;
Kazakh Dzungar War of 1723–1730,
causing the invasion and a catasrophic casualty among the
Kazakhs of Kazakh territory, which they ravaged much of the Kazakh steppe and had
defeated Kazakh troops on their capital city. Under the leadership of
Abul Khair Khan, the Kazakhs won over the Dzungars at the
Battle of Bulanty in 1727 and at the
Battle of Añyraqai in 1729.
Second Qing war (1714–1720) In 1714, Tsewang Rabtan continued his war against the Qing dynasty by sacking Hami. Tsewang Rabtan's brother Tseren Dhondup invaded the
Khoshut Khanate in 1717, deposed
Yeshe Gyatso, killed
Lha-bzang Khan, and looted
Lhasa. The
Kangxi Emperor retaliated in 1718, but his military expedition was annihilated by the Dzungars in the
Battle of the Salween River, not far from Lhasa. A
second and larger expedition was sent by the Kangxi Emperor, which expelled the Dzungars from
Tibet in 1720. They brought
Kälzang Gyatso with them from Kumbum to Lhasa and installed him as the 7th Dalai Lama in 1721. The people of
Turpan and Pichan took advantage of the situation to rebel under a local chief,
Emin Khoja, and defected to the Qing dynasty.
Galdan Tseren (1727–1745) Tsewang Rabtan died suddenly in 1727 and was succeeded by his son Galdan Tseren, by killing his half-brother Lobsangsür. He continued the war against the Kazakhs and the Khalkha Mongols. In retaliation against attacks against his Khalkha subjects, the
Yongzheng Emperor of the
Qing dynasty sent an invasion force of 10,000, which the Dzungars defeated near the
Khoton Lake. The next year, however, the Dzungars suffered a defeat against the Khalkhas near
Erdene Zuu Monastery. In 1731, the Dzungars attacked Turpan, which had previously defected to the Qing dynasty. Amin Khoja led the people of Turpan in a retreat into
Gansu, where they settled in
Guazhou. In 1739, Galdan Tseren agreed to the boundary between Khalkha and Dzungar territory. As a result of successful campaigns against the Kazakhs (1734—1735, 1740—1742), the authority of Galdan-Tseren was recognized by the Greater and Middle Zhuzes. The feudal lords of the Greater Zhuz annually sent hostages (amanats) to Urga, and the population paid tribute-alban. The Khan of the Middle Zhuz Abulmambet and the sultans Ablai, Abulfeiz, and Niyaz were also forced to send hostages to Dzungaria. The Russian lieutenant D. Gladyshev, who returned from a trip to Abulkhair in Orenburg in the spring of 1742, reported on a meeting of the nobility of the Younger Zhuz, at which a decision was made to recognize the citizenship of the Dzungar khuntaiji. Soon, the Khan of the Younger Zhuz Abulkhair also sent his son to Dzungaria. By 1745, Dzungaria was the largest power in Central Asia, a force to be reckoned with by the two most formidable Eurasian empires, the Russian Empire and the Qing Empire. The Dzungar Khanate controlled a significant portion of modern Kazakhstan, the northern part of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of China, southwestern Mongolia, and the southern part of the Altai Mountains. The rulers of East Turkestan, Altai, and the Greater Kazakh Zhuz considered the Dzungar Khanate their supreme overlord.
Collapse (1745–1757) Galdan Tseren died in 1745, triggering widespread rebellion in the Tarim Basin and starting a succession dispute among his sons. In 1749, Galden Tseren's son
Lama Dorji seized the throne from his younger brother,
Tsewang Dorji Namjal. He was overthrown by his cousin
Dawachi and the
Khoid noble
Amursana, but they too fought over control of the khanate. As a result of their dispute, in 1753, three of Dawachi's relatives, ruling the Dörbet and
Bayad, defected to the Qing and migrated into Khalkha territory. The next year, Amursana also defected. In 1754, Yusuf, the ruler of
Kashgar, rebelled and forcefully converted the Dzungars living there to Islam. His older brother, Jahan Khoja of
Yarkand, also rebelled but was captured by the Dzungars due to the treachery of Ayyub Khoja of
Aksu. Jahan's son Sadiq gathered 7,000 men in
Khotan and attacked Aksu in retaliation. In the spring of 1755, the
Qianlong Emperor sent an army of 50,000 against Dawachi. He presented his invasion as benevolent, and aimed at ending the sufferings of the Dzungars, while ascribing their misery to themselves: The Qing army met almost no resistance and destroyed the Dzungar Khanate within the span of 100 days. The Chinese army, supplemented on the way by Muslim and renegade Dzungar troops, surprised
Dawachi at the site of Borotola in June 1755, about 300
li from
Ili. Dawachi had about 10,000 troops and retreated to Mount Keteng, about 80
li from Ili, while sending messengers for reinforcements, but the messengers were intercepted by the Chinese. The Qing army was able to surprise and capture Dawachi's army at the camp, and a charge was led by the Dzungar renegade
Ayusi and 20 of his men, who stormed the camp and where able to conduct about 8,000 prisoners to the Chinese camp (an event depicted in the Qing painting "
Storming of the Camp at Gädän-Ola"). Only 2,000 soldiers escaped with Dawachi at their head. Dawachi fled into the mountains north of Aksu but was captured by the Uyghur leader
Khojis, beg of
Uchturpan, at the request of the Chinese, and delivered to the Qing.
Surrender of Dawachi (1755) Dawachi surrendered to the Qing general Zhaohui. The scene was immortalized in the painting "
Zhaohui receives the surrender of Dawachi at Ili" by the Jesuit court painter
Ignatius Sichelbart. Dawachi was taken to Beijing, but was pardoned by the Emperor. Together with his captor
Khojis, he was made a Prince, and "awarded banner privileges".
Amursana's rebellion (1755–1757) . After defeating the Dzungar Khanate, the Qing planned to install khans for each of the four Oirat tribes, but
Amursana, who had been an ally of the Qing against Dawachi, wanted to rule with gaining the title Khan and rule over the Dzungars. Instead, the
Qianlong Emperor made him only khan of the
Khoid. Amursana soon started to gather troops while he also delayed his formal submission to the nation. This led to the Qianlong Emperor sending the Khalkha prince, Erinchindorj and Bandi to arrest Amursana and bring him to the Emperor in
Chengde. However, Amursana fled to the Irtysh. In the summer, Amursana, along with Mongol leader
Chingünjav, led a revolt against the Qing. Amursana was defeated in the Battle of Oroi-Jalatu, in which Chinese general, Zhaohui attacked the Dzungars at night in present
Wusu. Unable to defeat the Qing, Amursana fled north to seek refuge with the Kazakhs. However, he later fled to the Russians, as Ablai Khan attempted to betray him. Amursana died of
smallpox in Russian lands in September 1757. In the spring of 1762, his frozen body was brought to
Kyakhta for the Manchu to see. The Russians then buried it, refusing the Manchu request that it be handed over for
posthumous punishment. Later encounters took place with the remaining Dzungar forces, in the Battle of Khorgos, in which the partisans of Amursana were defeated in 1758 by Prince Cäbdan-jab. Again in 1758, at the Battle of Khurungui, General Zhaohui ambushed and defeated the Dzungarian forces on Mount Khurungui, near
Almaty, Kazakhstan. File:Battle of Oroi-Jalatu.jpg|The Battle of Oroi-Jalatu, 1756. Chinese general,
Zhaohui attacked the Dzungars at night in the present
Wusu, Xinjiang. Painting by
Giuseppe Castiglione. File:The Victory of Khorgos1.jpg|"The Victory of Khorgos". The partisans of
Amursana were defeated in 1758 by Prince Cäbdan-jab. Painting by
Jean Denis Attiret. File:Battle of Khurungui.jpg|Battle of Khurungui, 1758. General
Zhaohui ambushes and defeats the Dzungar partisans of
Amursana on Mount Khurungui (near
Almaty, Kazakhstan). Painted by
Jean-Damascène Sallusti.
Aq Taghliq rebellion (1757–1759) When Amursana rebelled against the
Qing dynasty, the
Aq Taghliq (i.e., 'White Mountaineers', also known as
Āfāqīs) Khojas Burhanuddin and Jahan rebelled in
Yarkand. Their rule was not popular, and the people greatly disliked them for appropriating anything they needed, from clothing to livestock. In February 1758, the Qing sent Yaerhashan and Zhao Hui with 10,000 troops against the Aq Taghliq regime. Zhao Hui was besieged by enemy forces at Yarkand until January 1759, but otherwise the Qing army did not encounter any difficulties on campaign. The
Khoja brothers fled to
Badakhshan, where they were captured by the ruler Sultan Shah, who executed them and handed Jahan's head to the Qing. The Tarim Basin was pacified in 1759.
Genocide According to the Qing scholar
Wei Yuan (1794–1857), the Dzungar population before the Qing conquest was around 600,000 in 200,000 households. Wei Yuan wrote that about 40 percent of the Dzungar households were killed by
smallpox, 20 percent fled to Russia or
Kazakh tribes, and 30 percent were killed by Manchu bannermen. For several thousands of
li, there were no
gers except for those who had surrendered. Wen-Djang Chu wrote that 80 percent of the 600,000 or more Dzungars were destroyed by disease and attack which Michael Clarke described as "the complete destruction of not only the Dzungar state but of the Dzungars as a people". It's argued by the historian
Peter Perdue that the destruction of the Dzungars was the result of an explicit policy of extermination launched by the
Qianlong Emperor, which lasted for two years. Widespread anti-Dzungar opinion by former Dzungar subjects contributed to their genocide. The Muslim
Kazakhs and former people of the
Yarkent Khanate in the
Tarim Basin (now called
Uyghurs), were treated poorly by their Buddhist Dzungar rulers, who used them as slave labor; in consequence, they participated in the Qing invasion and attacked the Dzungars. Uyghur leaders like
Khoja Emin or
Khojis were granted titles within the Qing nobility, and acted as intermediaries with Muslims from the Tarim Basin. They told the Muslims that the Qing only wanted to kill Oirats and that they would leave the Muslims alone. They also convinced the Muslims to aid the Qing in killing Oirats.
Demographic change in Xinjiang (–1781), a
Uyghur governor of
Us-Turfan. Painting by
Ignatius Sichelbart, a European Jesuit artist at the Chinese court in 1775. After the destruction of the Dzungar Oirat people, the
Qing dynasty sponsored the settlement of millions of Han, Hui, Xibe, Daur, Solon, Turkic Oasis people (Uyghurs), and Manchus in Dzungaria since the land had been emptied. Stanley W. Toops notes that modern Xinjiang's demographic situation still reflects the settlement initiative of the Qing dynasty. One third of Xinjiang's total population consisted of Han, Hui, and Kazakhs in the north, while around two-thirds were Uyghurs in southern Xinjiang's Tarim Basin. Some cities in northern Xinjiang, such as Ürümqi and Yining, were essentially made by the Qing settlement policy. The elimination of the Buddhist Dzungars led to the rise of Islam and its Muslim Begs as the predominant moral and political authority in Xinjiang. Many Muslim
Taranchis also moved to northern Xinjiang. According to Henry Schwarz, "the Qing victory was, in a certain sense, a victory for Islam". Ironically, the destruction of the Dzungars by the Qing led to the consolidation of Turkic Muslim power in the region, since Turkic Muslim culture and identity were tolerated or even promoted by the Qing. In 1759, the Qing dynasty proclaimed that the land formerly belonging to the Dzungars was now part of "China" (Dulimbai Gurun) in a Manchu memorial. The Qing ideology of unification portrayed the "outer" non-Han Chinese like the Mongols, Oirats, and Tibetans together with the "inner" Han Chinese as "one family" united in the Qing state. The Qing described the phrase "Zhong Wai Yi Jia" (中外一家) or "Nei Wai Yi Jia" (內外一家, "interior and exterior as one family"), to convey this idea of "unification" to different peoples.
Paintings The
Qianlong Emperor took great care to document his successes in the war. He ordered the painting of the 100 most meritorious servitors of the Qing (
Statues of Meritorious Officials in the Ziguang Pavilion: brave Qing officers, generals, and also a few
Torghut and
Dörbet allies, as well as vanquished
Choros Oirats, or Muslim
Uyghur allies such as
Khojis or
Emin Khoja), as well as paintings of the battle scenes whenever the Qing succeeded. The faces are in a Western realistic style, while the bodies were probably drawn by Chinese court artists. According to contemporary
Jesuit painter
Jean-Denis Attiret: "During the whole duration of this war against the Eleuths and other Tartars, their allies, whenever the imperial troops gained some victories, the painters were ordered to paint them. Those of the most important officers who had played the decisive roles in the events were favoured to appear in the paintings according to what really had happened". These paintings were all made by foreign artists, specifically the
Jesuits under
Giuseppe Castiglione, and Chinese court-painters under their direction. File:Dawachi.jpg|The
Choros-Oirat leader
Dawachi in Qing costume, after the
Dzungar-Qing War. Painting by
Jean Denis Attiret. File: Dawa.jpg|The
Choros-Oirat Dawa (达瓦) in Qing costume, after the
Dzungar-Qing War. Painting by Jean Denis Attiret. File: Tseren.jpg|The
Dörbet Oirat Tseren (车凌) in
Qing dynasty costume. Painting by Jean Denis Attiret. File: Buyan Tegus.jpg|The
Dörbet Oirat Buyan Tegus in
Qing dynasty costume. Painting by Jean Denis Attiret. File:Erdeni.jpg|The
Dörbet Oirat Erdeni (额爾德尼) in
Qing dynasty costume. Painting by Jean Denis Attiret. File:Gangdorji.jpg|The
Dörbet Oirat Gangdorji (刚多尔济) in
Qing dynasty costume. Painting by Jean Denis Attiret. File:Gendun.jpg|The
Dörbet Oirat Gendun (根敦) in
Qing dynasty costume. Painting by Jean Denis Attiret. File: Ayusi Assailing The Rebels with a Lance.jpg|The Oirat renegade
Ayusi in his Qing uniform. Painting by
Giuseppe Castiglione. == Leaders ==