, Ferghana valley, 3rd millennium BCE. Fergana, on the route to
Tarim Basin from the west, remained at the boundaries of a number of classical era empires.
Achaemenid Empire As early as 500 BC, the western sections of the Fergana Valley formed part of the
Sogdiana region, which was ruled from further west and owed fealty to the
Achaemenid Empire at the time of
Darius the Great. The independent and warlike Sogdiana formed a border region insulating the
Achaemenid Persians from the nomadic
Scythians to the north and east. It was forcibly settled by exiled Greeks from the Anatolian coast, who had rebelled or otherwise given Persia trouble. Eventually, it had a significant Greek community. The capital of the region was known to the Greeks as
Cyropolis, named after Cyrus the Great. The
Sogdian Rock or Rock of Ariamazes, a fortress in Sogdiana, was captured in 327 BC by the forces of
Alexander the Great; after an extended campaign putting down Sogdian resistance and founding military outposts manned by his Greek veterans, Alexander united Sogdiana with
Bactria into one
satrapy.
Hellenistic settlement , woollen wall hanging, 3rd-2nd century BC, Sampul,
Urumqi Xinjiang Museum. In 329 BC,
Alexander the Great founded the city of
Alexandria Eschate "The Furthest", probably renaming Cyropolis. This was in the southwestern part of the Fergana Valley, on the southern bank of the river
Syr Darya (ancient Jaxartes), at the location of the modern city of
Khujand, in the state of
Tajikistan. Supplemented by Alexander's veterans, it was later ruled by
Seleucids before the secession of Bactria. The Hellenistic settlements, such as Alexandria Eschate, serve as vibrant examples of cultural and artistic exchanges that occurred following Alexander the Great's conquests. Among the artifacts that highlight this fusion is the Ferghana horse sculpture from the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, dating back to around 4 to 1 BCE. The Ferghana horse sculpture, a ceremonial gilt bronze finial from the 4th-1st century BCE, exemplifies the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom's artistic synthesis of Greek and Scythian influences. Capturing a horse in the suspension phase of a gallop, the sculpture symbolizes peak speed and power, with its V-shaped leg arrangement echoing Greek symbols of speed and victory. Detailed anatomical features, such as visible ribs and dynamic muscle contractions, showcase a profound understanding of equine biomechanics. The lifelike depiction extends to aerodynamic adaptations like flat ears, a streamlined mane, and a fanned tail, enhancing balance and stability at high speeds. Decorative swirls symbolize the horse's power and celestial nature, reflecting the cultural reverence for horses and the era's craftsmanship. Integrating elements of movement and triumph, this sculpture connects deeply to ancient narratives of success and achievement, offering insights into the historical and artistic context of its time. After 250 BC, the city probably remained in contact with the
Greco-Bactrian Kingdom centered on
Bactria, especially when the Greco-Bactrian king
Euthydemus extended his control to Sogdiana. There are indications that from
Alexandria Eschate the Greco-Bactrians may have led expeditions as far as
Kashgar and
Ürümqi in
Chinese Turkestan, leading to the first known contacts between China and the West around 220 BC. Several statuettes and representations of Greek soldiers have been found north of the
Tian Shan, on the doorstep to China, and are today on display in the
Xinjiang museum at
Urumqi (Boardman). Of the Greco-Bactrians, the Greek historian
Strabo too writes that: "they extended their empire even as far as the
Seres (Chinese) and the
Phryni." The Fergana area, called
Dayuan by the Chinese, remained an integral part of the
Greco-Bactrian Kingdom until after the time of
Demetrius I of Bactria (c. 120 BC), when confronted with invasions by the
Yuezhi from the east and the
Sakas Scythians from the south. After 155 BC, the Yuezhi were pushed into Fergana by the alliance of the powerful
Xiongnu and the neighboring
Wusun from the north and east, invaded the urban civilization of the
Dayuan, eventually settling on the northern bank of the
Oxus in the region of
Transoxiana in modern-day
Tajikistan and
Uzbekistan, just north of the
Hellenistic Greco-Bactrian Kingdom. The Greek city of
Alexandria on the Oxus was apparently burnt to the ground by the Yuezhi around 145 BC. Pushed by these twin forces, the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom reoriented itself around lands in what is now Afghanistan, while the new invaders were partially assimilated into the Hellenistic culture left in Fergana Valley.
Han dynasty According to the
Han dynasty Records of the Grand Historian or
Shiji, based on the travels of
Zhang Qian and published around 126 BC, the region of Fergana is presented as the country of the
Dayuan (Ta-Yuan), possibly descendants of Greeks colonists (Dayuan may be a transliteration of "Great Ionians"). The area was renowned for its
Heavenly Horses, which the Chinese tried to obtain from the Dayuan with little success until they waged
war against them in 104 BC. The Dayuan were identified by the Chinese as unusual in features, with a sophisticated urban civilization, similar to that of the
Bactrians and
Parthians: "The Son of Heaven on hearing all this reasoned thus: Fergana (Dayuan) and the possessions of Bactria and Parthia are large countries, full of rare things, with a population living in fixed abodes and given to occupations somewhat identical with those of the Chinese people, but with weak armies, and placing great value on the rich produce of China" (
Book of the Later Han). Agricultural activities of the Dayuan reported by Zhang Qian included cultivation of grain and grapes for wine-making. The area of Fergana was thus the theater of the first major interaction between an urbanized culture speaking
Indo-European languages and the Chinese civilization, which led to the opening up the
Silk Road from the 1st century BC onwards. The Han later captured Dayuan in the
Han-Dayuan war, installing a king there. Later the Han set up the
Protectorate of the Western Regions Kushan . Fergana, to the top right, formed a periphery to these less powerful cities and states. The
Kushan Empire formed from the same Yuezhi who had conquered the Hellenistic Fergana. The Kushan spread out in the 1st century AD from the Yuezhi confederation in the territories of ancient
Bactria on either side of the middle course of the
Oxus River or
Amu Darya in what is now northern Afghanistan, and southern Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. The Kushan conquered most of what is now northern India and Pakistan, driving east through Fergana. Kushan power also consolidated long-distance trade, linking Central Asia to both
Han dynasty China and the Roman Empire in Europe.
Sassanid rule The Kushans ruled the area as part of their larger empire until the 3rd century AD, when the
Zoroastrian Persian Sassanid Empire invaded Kushan territory from the southwest. Fergana remained under shifting local and Transoxian rulers thereafter. For periods in the 4th and 5th centuries, the Sassanid Empire directly controlled Transoxiana and Fergana, led by the conquests of
Shapur II and
Khosrau I against the Kushans and the
Hephthalite Empire.
Hepthalites Sassanid rule of Fergana was interrupted by the
Hepthalites, possibly Turkic.
Gokturks Hepthalite rule was ended by the
Gokturks in mid of 6th century. The
Turkic Khaganates ruled it until the first quarter of 8th century when it was subjugated by the Tang dynasty
Ikhshids The Kingdom of Ferghana was ruled by the
Ikhshids, who submitted as vassal to the Chinese
Tang between 659 and 790. It was attacked by the Tibetan Empire in 715. The
Umayyad Caliphate in 715 deposed the ruler, and installed a new king Alutar on the throne. The Chinese sent 10,000 troops under Zhang Xiaosong to Ferghana. He defeated Alutar and the Arab occupation force at Namangan and reinstalled Ikhshid on the throne.
Muslim conquest During the 8th century, Fergana was the location of fierce rivalry between
Tang dynasty China and the expansion of Muslim power. The Umayyads waged several wars against the Sogdian and Turkic population. They were defeated by the
Turgesh who came dominated the Ferghana Valley until their defeat by Tang in 750. At the same time, the Abbasids defeated the Umayyads and sent their forces to Central Asia. This was leading to the
Battle of Talas in 751, which resulted in a victory for the Abbasids and the disengagement of China from Central Asia. Two antecedent battles in 715 and 717 had seen the Chinese prevail over Arab forces. A series of Arab, Persian, and later Turkic Muslim rulers reigned over the Fergana.
Samanid, Karakhanid and Khwarezmid rules The
Samanid Empire, rising from the
Arab Muslim conquest of Persia, pushed into what was then called
Greater Khorasan, including
Transoxiana and the Fergana Valley from the West. In 819,
Ahmad ibn Asad—son of
Asad ibn Saman—was granted authority over the city of Fergana by Caliph
Al-Ma'mun's governor of
Khorasan, Ghassan ibn 'Abbad, as a reward for his support against the rebel
Rafi' ibn Laith. Following the death of his brother
Nuh, who ruled in Samarkand, Ahmad and another brother
Yahya were given rule over the city by Abdallah, the governor of Khurasan. By the time of Ahmad's death in 864 or 865, he was the ruler of most of
Transoxiana,
Bukhara and
Khwarazm. Samarkand and Fergana went to his son,
Nasr I, leading to a series of
Samanid dynasty Muslim rulers of the valley. During demise of Samanids in 10th century, Fergana Valley was conquered by
Karakhanids. Eastern part of Fergana later was under suzerenaity of
Karakhitays. Karakhanid rule lasted till 1212, when
Khwarezmshahs conquered the western part of the valley.
Turco–Mongol rule , the
Turco-Mongol founder of the
Mughal dynasty, was a native of
Andijan in the Fergana Valley.
Genghis Khan invaded Transoxiana and Fergana in 1219 during his conquest of
Khwarazm. Before his death in 1227, he assigned the lands of Western Central Asia to his second son
Chagatai, and this region became known as the
Chagatai Khanate. But it was not long before Transoxian Turkic leaders ruled the area, along with most of central Asia as fiefs from the
Golden Horde of the Mongol Empire. The Fergana became part of a larger
Turco-Mongol empire. This
Mongolian nomadic confederation known as
Barlas, were remnants of the original Mongol army of
Genghis Khan. After the Mongol conquest of Central Asia, the Barlas settled in
Turkistan (which then became also known as
Moghulistan - "Land of Mongols") and intermingled to a considerable degree with the local
Turkic and
Turkic-speaking population, so that at the time of Timur's reign the Barlas had become thoroughly Turkicized in terms of language and habits. Additionally, by adopting Islam, the Central Asian Turks and Mongols also adopted the
Persian literary and high culture which had dominated Central Asia since the early days of Islamic influence. Persian literature was instrumental in the assimilation of the Timurid elite to the Perso-Islamic courtly culture. Heir to one of these confederations,
Timur, founder of the
Timurid dynasty, added the valley to a newly consolidated empire in the late 14th century, ruling the area from
Samarkand. Located on the
Northern Silk Road, the Fergana played a significant part in the flowering of
medieval Central Asian Islam. Its most famous son is
Babur, heir to Timur and famous conqueror and founder of the
Mughal dynasty in
Medieval India. Islamic proselytizers from the Fergana Valley such as al-Firghani (الفرغاني), al-Andijani (الأندجاني), al-Namangani (النمنگاني), and al-Khojandi (الخوجندي) spread Islam into parts of present-day Russia, China, and India. The Fergana valley was ruled by a series of Muslim states in the medieval period. For much of this period local and southwestern rulers divided the valley into a series of small states. From the 16th century, the
Shaybanid dynasty of the
Khanate of Bukhara ruled Fergana, replaced by the Janid dynasty of Bukhara in 1599. In 1709 Shaybanid emir Shahrukh of the Minglar
Uzbeks declared independence from the
Khanate of Bukhara, establishing a state in the eastern part of the Fergana Valley. He built a citadel to be his capital in the small town of
Kokand. As the
Khanate of Kokand, Kokand was capital of a territory stretching over modern eastern Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, southern Kazakhstan and all of
Kyrgyzstan.
Russian Empire Fergana was a province of
Russian Turkestan, formed in 1876 out of the former
khanate of
Kokand. It was bounded by the provinces of
Syr-darya in the North and Northwest,
Samarkand in the West, and
Zhetysu in the Northeast, by
Chinese Turkestan (
Kashgaria) in the East, and by
Bukhara and Afghanistan in the South. Its southern limits, in the
Pamirs, were fixed by an Anglo-Russian commission in 1885, from
Zorkul (Victoria Lake) to the Chinese frontier; and Khignan,
Roshan and
Wakhan were assigned to
Afghanistan in exchange for part of
Darvaz (on the left bank of the
Panj), which was given to
Bukhara. The area amounted to some , of which are in the Pamirs. Not all the inhabitants of the area were happy with this state of affairs. In 1898 Muhammed Ali Khalfa proclaimed a
jihad against the Russians. However, after about 20 Russians had been killed, Khalfa was captured and executed. When the
1905 Revolution spread across the Russian Empire, some
Jadids were active in the Fergana Valley. When the Tsarist regime extended the
military draft to include
Muslims, this led to a revolt which was far more widespread than that of 1898, and which was not entirely suppressed by the time of the
Russian Revolution.
Soviet Union '', Fergana, 1921 In 1924, the new boundaries separating the
Uzbek SSR and
Kyrgyz SSR cut off the eastern end of the Fergana Valley, as well as the slopes surrounding it. This was compounded in 1928 when the
Tajik ASSR became a fully-fledged republic, and the area around
Khujand was made a part of it. This blocked the valley's natural outlet and the routes to Samarkand and Bukhara, but none of these borders was of any great significance so long as Soviet rule lasted. The whole region was part of a single economy geared to
cotton production on a massive scale, and the overarching political structures meant that crossing borders was not a problem.
Post Soviet breakup With the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991 and the establishment of independent republics, borders have been strongly enforced, though the impact of the new international borders was minor until 1998–2000. Uzbekistan regularly closes its borders with Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan, strangling trade and causing immense difficulties for those who live in the region. Communications between the Kyrgyzstan cities of
Bishkek and
Osh pass through difficult mountainous country. Ethnic tensions also flared into
riots in 1990, most notably in the town of
Uzgen, near Osh. There has been no further ethnic violence, and things appeared to have quieted down for several years. However, the valley is a religiously conservative region which was particularly hard-hit by President
Karimov's secularization legislation in Uzbekistan, together with his decision to close the borders with Kyrgyzstan in 2003. This devastated the local economy by preventing the importation of cheap Chinese consumer goods. The deposition of
Askar Akayev in Kyrgyzstan in April 2005, coupled with the arrest of a group of prominent local businessmen brought underlying tensions to a head in the region around
Andijan and
Qorasuv during the
May 2005 unrest in Uzbekistan in which hundreds of protestors were killed by troops. There was violence again in 2010 in the Kyrgyz part of the valley, heated by ethnic tensions, worsening economic conditions due to the global economic crisis, and political conflict over the ouster of Kyrgyz President
Kurmanbek Bakiyev in April 2010. In June 2010, about 200 people have been reported to be killed during clashes in
Osh and
Jalal-Abad, and 2000 more were injured. Between 100,000 and 300,000 refugees, predominantly of Uzbek ethnic origin, attempted to flee to Uzbekistan, causing a major humanitarian crisis. The area has also been subject to informal radicalization. ==Agriculture==