Pre-Columbian Prior to Classic collapse The first settlements in Chetumal were established by
Palaeo-indians before 8000 BC, during the
Lithic Period of Mesoamerica. The first
permanent settlements in Chetumal are believed to have been established by Maya farmers from the Guatemalan highlands by 2000 BC, during the
Archaic period of Mesoamerica. The first state or province encompassing Maya settlements in Chetumal is presumed to have been formed by 100 AD, during the
Late Preclassic period of Mesoamerica.
Proximal to Classic collapse The completion of the
Classic Maya collapse in Yucatan saw both the formation of Maya provinces and the imperial expansion of
Chichen Itza over these provinces, or their constituent cities. The collapse does not seem to have been catastrophic in the (future) territory of Chetumal. At least twenty-five settlements in the area are known to have survived, most likely by reorienting economic activity towards the
Chichen Itza-driven coasting trade. There is, nonetheless, evidence of limited social upheaval.
Chichen Itza, established by
Itza settlers in circa 750–800 AD, was the most powerful city-state in the Yucatan peninsula until circa 1050–1100 AD. It appears to have started a sustained, and successful, programme of conquest in circa 900 AD, resulting in the formation of various provinces, possibly or likely including Chetumal.
Posterior to Classic collapse Mayapan succeeded Chichen Itza as the most powerful city-state in Yucatan during ''k'atun 8 ahaw
, equivalent either to 1080–1104 AD, or to 1185–1204 AD. Its rule lasted thirteen k'atuno'ob'', thereby ending either during 1392–1416 AD, or 1441–1461 AD. During circa 1450 to 1500 AD, Pachimalahix I, fifth ruler of the Acalan, led a military force to the Chetumal capital, and exacted tribute. Further details on this event remain obscure, though given the reputed commercial pre-eminence of the provincial capital at the time, it has been suggested that Pachimalahix I rather raided the city to settle trade-related damages, rather than actually having exacted tribute.
Columbian First contacts with Spaniards The first Spaniard known to have arrived in Chetumal was
Gonzalo Guerrero, a sailor from
Palos de la Frontera, Spain. In 1514, Guerrero entered the civil or military service in Chetumal. He was likely gifted to
Gov. Kan as a slave by a
batab or mayor from the
Ekab Province. By 1519, Guerrero had fully assimilated to Maya culture, having married Gov. Kan's daughter and fathered three children with her. Guerrero would thereafter devise or at least contribute to the military strategy of Chetumal and other Maya states against at least three Spanish entradas. Three events pre-dating the 1514 arrival of Guerrero to Chetumal have been proposed as marking the first contact by residents of Chetumal with Spaniards: • The 1511 arrival of Guerrero and his marooned shipmates to
Cozumel • The
1508 voyage of Solís and Pinzón to
Lake Izabal • The
1502 voyage by Christopher Columbus to
Guanaja Maya settlements near Cozumel, Lake Izabal, and Guanaja are known to have been part of the riverine and coastal trading networks of merchants in Chetumal. Any knowledge of non-Indian people obtained by the former is thus presumed to have been passed on to the latter. It has further been suggested that the
Ekab Province may have been allied with Chetumal.
Cuban expeditions to Yucatan Hispano-Maya hostilities commenced on 5 March 1517 in
Cape Catoche, when an expeditionary force led by
Francisco Hernández de Córdoba was ambushed by the military or militia of the
Ekab Province, near that state's eponymous capital. The
Hernández expedition were similarly received by neighbouring Maya polities, thereby foiling the expedition's pecuniary aims. The expeditionaries' reports of grand Maya cities would nonetheless spur further Cuban expeditions to Yucatan, including a 1518 trading and reconnoitering voyage by
Juan de Grijalva and another in 1519 by
Hernán Cortés, the latter of which quickly morphed into the 1519–1521
Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire and the 1519–1521 smallpox epidemic. The epidemic is presumed to have affected Chetumal severely. The reports likewise prompted the
Governor of Cuba, who had commissioned the Hernández expedition, to petition and be granted letter patent authorising his conquest of the Maya states on behalf of the
Charles I of Spain. The newly minted
adelantado, however, did not proceed with the conquest of Yucatan.
Montejo entrada, 1527–1528 On 8 December 1526, the
Salamancan conquistador
Francisco de Montejo, who had participated in the Grijalva and Cortés expeditions from Cuba, was granted letters patent for the conquest of Yucatan and Cozumel by Charles I of Spain. Unlike Gov. Velázquez, former holder of the patent, Montejo promptly undertook the called-for conquest. The adelantado named his close colleague,
Alonso Dávila, likewise a participant in the Grijalva and Cortés expeditions from Cuba, the principal lieutenant for his entrada. They engaged 4 ships and over 250 men in
Seville, from where they embarked in late June 1527, landing in
Cozumel in late September 1527.
Northern campaign, autumn 1527 – summer 1528 They watered in Cozumel for a few days, upon their warm reception by residents and Naum Pat, an influential
batab or mayor in Cozumel, and thereafter proceeded to the mainland. They explored the immediate area, being well received by the nearby towns of
Xelha and
Zama, and founded a settlement, christened
Salamanca, in October 1527. Their substantial demands for foodstuffs soon grew irksome to locals, upon which Salamanca saw their supplies dwindle. In late 1527 or early 1528, after a trying period of near-famine and disease, the Spanish moved northwards. With Naum Pat’s intercession, they were well received throughout the
Ekab Province. They entered
Chauaka, capital of the
Chikinchel Province, in spring of 1528. A battle ensued, which Montejo won, thereby forcing Chikinchel to sue for peace. They next headed to
Ake, where the Battle of Ake was likewise won by Montejo, after which they headed back to Salamanca, reaching it mid- or late summer 1528. Here, they were provisioned from
Santo Domingo, whereupon they embarked on a combined entrada by land and sea southwards.
Southern campaign, summer 1528 Montejo was to hug the coast with eight to ten men aboard the brigantine or caravel
La Gavarra. Dávila was to take a parallel route by land, with the majority of the soldiers. The provincial capital of Chetumal, which had been set as the parties’ rendezvous point, was first reached by Montejo. Unsure of the reception awaiting them, Montejo and his men kidnapped three or four residents under the cover of darkness to gather intelligence. Upon learning of
Guerrero, now the
nakom or commander-in-chief of the capital’s forces, Montejo dispatched one of the captives to the former, inviting the commander to break ranks and join the Spanish conquest. This being summarily spurned, the capital was prepared for battle. The commander’s strategy was apparently to keep the Dávila and Montejo parties separated. Guides were or had been sent, under pretence of alliance, to lead Dávila west of the capital, and thereafter inform him that the Montejo party had been lost. The greater threat thus despatched, the capital turned towards Montejo. Feigning good will, residents ministered to Montejo and his men, and further informed the adelantado that the Dávila party had all perished. This bluff likewise worked, and the adelantado promptly set sail south towards
Ulua River, and then back north towards Salamanca. Montejo soon discovered the ruse, and determined to gather reinforcements at
Veracruz for a renewed offensive on Chetumal. He most likely set sail for that city in summer 1528.
Davila entrada, 1531–1533 In early 1531, the adelantado, having brought the
Chakan,
Can Pech, and
Ah Canul Provinces under Spanish authority, promptly set about planning a renewed campaign towards Chetumal. Alonso Dávila was appointed to lead the expedition of circa fifty men.
Waymil–Chetumal campaign, summer 1531 Dávila set out from the provincial capital of
Can Pech in mid-1531. They marched through the
Mani and
Cochuah Provinces unopposed, shortly thereafter reaching Chable, a town in the
Waymil Province. Pre-eminent individuals in town promptly offered assistance, and were despatched to the provincial capital of
Bacalar to summon the
batab or mayor. The summons being rebuffed, Dávila marched on, leaving half of his men in Chable. They next reached Maçanahau, a large town close to
Lake Bacalar. Being well received, Dávila and his men stayed here for three weeks, during which time the diplomatic aid of leading individuals from various provincial towns seems to have convinced the
batab or mayor of Bacalar to not oppose the entrada. Consequently, the party continued their march to
Bacalar unopposed. An overland march to Chetumal, Dávila soon found out, was not possible. Sea transport on several large canoes was thus arranged. They disembarked at Chetumal unopposed, as the capital had been deserted. Nevertheless, per his instructions, Dávila decided to found a town in Chetumal. The rest of the party, who had been left in Chable, were called for, and the new settlement at Chetumal christened
Villa Real.
Settlement and siege of Villa Real, summer 1531 – autumn 1532 In the next two months, the Governor of Chetumal, Nachan Kan, rallied the provincial forces at Chequitaquil, a coastal town four leagues north of the capital. On learning this, Dávila ordered a pre-emptive strike. A unit of circa twenty-five soldiers took the encampment by surprise. The assault was a partial success, resulting in the death of many of the provinces men, imprisonment of over sixty, and dispersal of all others. The principal target, Gov. Kan, had nonetheless made his escape. Now safely ensconced at the Chetumal capital (now
Villa Real), Dávila set out with twenty men on a survey of the newly-Spanish territory towards Maçanahau. Upon reaching Bacalar, Dávila, to his great surprise, was informed that residents of Maçanahau and other provincial towns of Waymil had resolved to oppose him. The towns and their access roads had been barricaded. The opposition, though, was soon routed. In the meantime, the recently conquered Cochuah Province had revolted. Dávila resupplied at Villa Real and set off with twenty-two men to suppress the revolt. Unlike the limited rebellion in Waymil, the Cochuah revolt proved serious and widespread, forcing Dávila to retreat to Villa Real. The Spanish settlement was now under heavy siege. With only some thirty men fit for combat, five horses, and depleting stores, their situation was precarious. Dávila soon learnt of a sizeable convoy preparing to set sail near Villa Real for trade towards the
Ulua River. He had the merchants and their articles seized. Since his prisoners included the son of the
batab or mayor of Tapaen, a provincial town in Waymil, Dávila kept the son hostage and despatched two merchants to summon the mayor, who promptly called. The mayor was given a month to secure communication with the adelantado in the capital of the
Can Pech Province, and promised his son in return. Believing his son would be released regardless, the mayor dallied. Upon learning of the mayor's ill faith, Dávila had him and his retinue tortured. To prove "whether the son had more love for the father, than the father had for the son," Dávila now despatched the mayor's son to the adelantado in Can Pech, keeping the mayor hostage. This arrangement also faltered.
Retreat from Villa Real, autumn 1532 – spring 1533 The siege wore on for months, as it became increasingly clear to the men that the situation was untenable. In autumn 1532, Dávila and the
cabildo or town council resolved to retreat to
Trujillo by sea. They reached
Puerto Caballos in spring 1533, after an arduous journey of seven months.
Pacheco entrada, 1543–1544 In April 1543, the Adelantado commissioned Gaspar Pacheco to conquer Chetumal and Waymil. Pacheco enlisted twenty-five to thirty men in
Merida, and named Melchor Pacheco his principal subordinate, and Alonso Pacheco third in command. The expedition set out in late 1543 or early 1544. Pacheco and his men first reached the Spanish-controlled
Cochuah Province. Their demands on the war-stricken residents here proved impossible to meet. The party nonetheless impressed men and women as servants, and seized so much food as to reduce the province to famine. At this point, having fallen ill, Gaspar Pacheco tasked Melchor Pacheco, his second-in-command, with the conquest of Waymil and Chetumal. Marching onwards to Waymil and Chetumal, the Pachecos soon discovered that residents had burnt their crops and fled to the woods, determined on guerrilla warfare to oppose them. Exasperated, the Pachecos now resorted to wanton acts of cruelty, including: • clubbing captives to death, • drowning captives, • sicking dogs on unarmed civilians, and allowing the dogs to maul them to death, and • mutilating captives. The Spanish thus avoided a war of attrition. By early 1544, local opposition was so inconsequential as to convince the Pachecos to establish a town, christened
Salamanca, in the ruins of Bacalar. The victory proved pyrrhic, as the entrada resulted in very significant depopulation of the Waymil and Chetumal Provinces, thereby ensuring the permanent poverty of
Salamanca. == Society ==